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  |cours= [[Diplomatie multilatérale et organisations internationales]]
  |cours= [[Multilateral diplomacy and international organizations]]
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  |professeurs=[[Sacha Zala]]<ref>[https://www.dodis.ch/fr/portrait/groupe-de-recherche/sacha-zala Profil de Sacha Zala sur Documents Diplomatiques Suisses]</ref><ref>[http://www.zala.ch/cv/CV_Zala.pdf CV de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sacha_Zala&oldid=189708391 Profil wikipedia de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[http://www.hist.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/zala_sacha/index_ger.html Profil de Sacha Zala sur le site de l'Université de Berne]</ref><ref>[https://www.zala.ch/ Site personnel de Sacha Zala]</ref>
  |professeurs=[[Sacha Zala]]<ref>[https://www.dodis.ch/fr/portrait/groupe-de-recherche/sacha-zala Profil de Sacha Zala sur Documents Diplomatiques Suisses]</ref><ref>[http://www.zala.ch/cv/CV_Zala.pdf CV de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sacha_Zala&oldid=189708391 Profil wikipedia de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[http://www.hist.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/zala_sacha/index_ger.html Profil de Sacha Zala sur le site de l’Université de Berne]</ref><ref>[https://www.zala.ch/ Site personnel de Sacha Zala]</ref>
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*[[Introduction au cours de diplomatie multilatérale et organisations internationales]]
*[[Introduction to the Multilateral Diplomacy and International Organizations Course]]
*[[Les débuts de la gestion du système internationale : le concert européen et le nouvel internationalisme]]
*[[The beginnings of the management of the international system: the European concert and the new internationalism]]
*[[Aux origines de la Société des Nations]]
*[[The origins of the League of Nations]]
*[[La paix de Paris et la Société des Nations]]
*[[The Peace of Paris and the League of Nations]]
*[[La Société des Nations comme organisation pour la coopération technique, économique, sociale et humanitaire]]
*[[The League of Nations as an organization for technical, economic, social and humanitarian cooperation]]
*[[La Société des Nations et la sécurité internationales : 1920 1939]]
*[[The League of Nations and International Security: 1920 - 1939]]
*[[La naissance de l’Organisation des Nations Unies]]
*[[The birth of the United Nations]]
*[[L’ONU et la Guerre froide de 1945 à 1973 : crises et coopérations]]
*[[The United Nations and the Cold War from 1945 to 1973: crises and cooperation]]
*[[L’ONU et la sécurité internationale : 1945 2013]]
*[[The United Nations and international security: 1945 - 2013]]
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{{Translations
{{Translations
| fr = L’ONU et la Guerre froide de 1945 à 1973 : crises et coopérations
| fr = L’ONU et la Guerre froide de 1945 à 1973 : crises et coopérations
| es =  
| es = La ONU y la Guerra Fría de 1945 a 1973: crisis y cooperación
}}
}}


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The fire has been set between communism and capitalism. This duality will immediately change the logic that existed in the aftermath of the Second World War, already with the question of denazification, which will be stopped by the beginning of the Cold War, it is a question of integrating the Nazi elites to fight against the communist danger. The fascists will be reintegrated into the political system in order to have an elite against the fear of a coup d'état or a communist takeover. There is a great continuity of elites in fascist countries and this is especially the case in the field of justice.
The fire has been set between communism and capitalism. This duality will immediately change the logic that existed in the aftermath of the Second World War, already with the question of denazification, which will be stopped by the beginning of the Cold War, it is a question of integrating the Nazi elites to fight against the communist danger. The fascists will be reintegrated into the political system in order to have an elite against the fear of a coup d'état or a communist takeover. There is a great continuity of elites in fascist countries and this is especially the case in the field of justice.


La fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale est liée d’une manière inextricable au début de la Guerre froide. La Guerre froide est une conséquence de la guerre de conquête nationale-socialiste, la question allemande est au centre de la Guerre froide. Il est important de retenir que l’année 1945 marque un changement majeur par rapport à la période d’entre-deux guerre. Alors que dans l’entre-deux-guerres, la plupart des grandes puissances mondiales n’étaient qu’en partie entrées dans le système mondial, à savoir les États-Unis, l’URSS et l’Allemagne jusqu’en 1926, cela change fondamentalement après la Deuxième Guerre mondiale. Et les États-Unis et l’Union soviétique participent à l’ordre d’après la Deuxième Guerre mondiale. La création des Nations Unies avec le discours des discontinuités avec la Société des Nations est en premier lieu avec les États-Unis et l’Union soviétique pour garder leur position et entrer dans cette organisation en appuyant sur le fait qu’il ne s’agit pas de la continuation d’un système qui n’a pas fonctionné. Le poids politique des puissances européennes traditionnelles a massivement reculé même si en 1945, à Londres et Paris ce n’est pas clair et difficile à accepter. Par contre, pour le Japon et l’Allemagne cela est clair. Cela a permis de faciliter l’intégration des pays qui ont perdu la Seconde guerre mondiale dans la communauté des États démocratiques même si l’intégration des deux Allemagnes aux Nations Unies prendra beaucoup de temps.
The end of the Second World War is inextricably linked to the beginning of the Cold War. The Cold War is a consequence of the National Socialist Conquest War, the German question is at the centre of the Cold War. It is important to remember that 1945 marked a major change from the interwar period. While in the interwar period most of the world's major powers had only partially joined the world system, namely the United States, the USSR and Germany until 1926, this changed fundamentally after the Second World War. And the United States and the Soviet Union participated in the post-World War II order. The creation of the United Nations with the discourse of discontinuities with the League of Nations is primarily with the United States and the Soviet Union to maintain their position and enter this organization on the basis that it is not a continuation of a system that has not worked. The political weight of the traditional European powers has declined massively, even if in 1945, in London and Paris, it is not clear and difficult to accept. On the other hand, for Japan and Germany this is clear. This has facilitated the integration of countries that lost the Second World War into the community of democratic states, although the integration of the two Germanies into the United Nations will take a long time.


Les premières tensions qui se produisent pendant le début de la Guerre froide ont eu une répercussion tout de suite au sein de l’ONU. Au début déjà des oppositions sont apparues et donc il y a des oppositions dans le système des Nations Unies à travers l’utilisation du droit de véto. En 1946, l’URSS a retardé son retrait de troupes en Iran du Nord, les Britanniques avaient des troupes en Grèce, en Palestine, les arabes comme les juifs essayaient d’obtenir leur indépendance en Palestine. Le coup d’État en Tchécoslovaquie a représenté un défi pour les États démocratiques tandis que le blocus de Berlin a marqué un tournant important dans l’histoire des alliés et à s’assurer la rupture définitive.
The first tensions that occurred during the beginning of the Cold War had an immediate impact within the UN. At the beginning, objections already appeared and therefore there are objections in the United Nations system through the use of the veto right. In 1946, the USSR delayed its withdrawal of troops to Northern Iran, the British had troops in Greece, Palestine, Arabs as well as Jews were trying to gain independence in Palestine. The coup in Czechoslovakia was a challenge for democratic states, while the Berlin blockade marked an important turning point in the history of the allies and ensured a definitive break.


= La décolonisation =
= Decolonization =
[[fichier:Onu1946GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|La création de l’Organisation des Nations Unies (1946) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Onu1946.html atlas-historique.net]]]


La décolonisation est probablement le développement le plus significatif dans l’après-Deuxième Guerre mondiale. L’année 1960 est dite l’« année de l’Afrique ». C’est l’année de la décolonisation, l’année «magique» pour l’Afrique, l’année où la plupart des États africains ont obtenu leur indépendance. Les débuts de la décolonisation sont difficiles à fixer. C’est surtout lors de la conférence de Paris que le droit à l’autodétermination des peuples et le système de mandat ont marqué un pas important dans l’indépendance des colonies même si l’indépendance ne s’est pas imposée. L’idée était que ces territoires pouvaient devenir un jour indépendants.
[[fichier:Onu1946GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|The creation of the United Nations (1946) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Onu1946.html atlas-historique.net]]]


[[fichier:MondeDecolonisationGF.gif|right|thumb|350px|La décolonisation - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/MondeDecolonisation.html atlas-historique.net]]]
Decolonization is probably the most significant development in the post-World War II period. The year 1960 is known as the "Year of Africa". This is the year of decolonization, the "magic" year for Africa, the year in which most African states gained their independence. The beginnings of decolonization are difficult to determine. It was above all at the Paris conference that the right to self-determination of peoples and the mandate system marked an important step forward in the independence of the colonies, even if independence did not prevail. The idea was that these territories could one day become independent.


Pendant l’entre-deux-guerres, la suprématie des blancs est restée incontestée même si la contestation est devenue plus grande sans cesse. L’élite indigène de ces colonies souvent formée en Europe commençait à revendiquer la participation au profit économique et politique dans leur pays. À partir des années 1920, les intellectuels indigènes insatisfait se rattachaient au parti communiste, partageant un combat commun pour les peuples coloniaux. L’établissement de l’élite et l’attractivité du système soviétique qui se veut anticolonialiste font que les élites vont se réunir en partie derrière le communisme. Les colonies ont perdu l’importance économique qu’elles avaient réussi à obtenir dans les années 1920. Dans les années 1930, avec la crise économique et politique, il y a un déclin des colonies qui va changer durant la Deuxième Guerre mondiale pour fournir des matières premières et des combattants. Il y a une détérioration de la perception du rôle des métropoles blanches vu que les promesses faites ne sont pas maintenues. En 1945, les pouvoirs coloniaux font face à la question difficile de savoir comment assurer les promesses faites. Les caisses des États étaient vides, les foyers étaient endettés. L’idée d’accorder l’indépendance aux colonies n’était pas au premier plan. Les Français, les belges et les Néerlandais ne voulaient pas se séparer de leurs possessions en tout cas pas immédiatement. Cette situation s’est encore aggravée au début de la Guerre froide. Roosevelt n’avait pas caché son rejet du colonialisme et mis ses alliés sous pression.
[[fichier:MondeDecolonisationGF.gif|right|thumb|350px|Decolonization - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/MondeDecolonisation.html atlas-historique.net]]]


Le rôle des États-Unis met en premier plan les États-Unis de manière globale, à savoir son rôle prédominant dans le champ occidental et aussi une attractivité pour ces pays qui voulaient atteindre l’indépendance. Cette orientation anticolonialiste de Washington envers les vieux pays européens et leurs colonies s’est par exemple manifestée avec l’octroi de l’indépendance aux Philippines en 1946. En même temps, il y a le fait que l’URSS se conçoit dans son discours de manière active comme anti-impérialiste. Il y a une forme de concurrence entre les États-Unis et l’Union soviétique qui met en crise les anciennes puissances européennes et leur système coloniaux. L’ONU a fait une prescription du racisme enlevant presque complètement la légitimité du système colonial. Tous ces facteurs ont permis le déclenchement des négociations.
During the inter-war period, the supremacy of the whites remained uncontested even though the protest became ever greater. The indigenous elite of these colonies, often formed in Europe, were beginning to claim participation for economic and political gain in their countries. From the 1920s onwards, dissatisfied indigenous intellectuals joined the Communist Party, sharing a common struggle for colonial peoples. The establishment of the elite and the attractiveness of the Soviet system, which claims to be anti-colonialist, mean that the elites will meet partly behind communism. The colonies have lost the economic importance they had achieved in the 1920s. In the 1930s, with the economic and political crisis, there was a decline in the colonies that would change during the Second World War to provide raw materials and fighters. There is a deterioration in the perception of the role of white metropolises since the promises made are not kept. In 1945, the colonial powers faced the difficult question of how to deliver on the promises made. The state coffers were empty, the households were in debt. The idea of granting independence to the colonies was not at the forefront. The French, Belgians and Dutch did not want to separate from their possessions, at least not immediately. This situation worsened further at the beginning of the Cold War. Roosevelt had made no secret of his rejection of colonialism and put his allies under pressure.


Dans les États, il y avait une administration indirecte, à savoir les colonies britanniques, il y a eu moins de problèmes que dans le modèle où il y avait un modèle d’administration direct. Les États qui se sont décolonisés en partant du système indirect britannique ont eu moins de problèmes. C’est avant tout l’existence de grandes communautés d’immigrants blancs qui a rendu la décolonisation compliquée. Ces populations ne pouvaient être ni abandonnées ni rapatriées. Souvent, les mouvements d’indépendance qui se sont fondés sur la lutte contre le colonialisme européen se sont très rapidement désintégrés menant à des guerres civiles dans plusieurs pays. Cette situation était particulièrement dévastatrice du fait que dans le contexte de la Guerre froide, elle a très rapidement offert l’occasion aux puissances mondiales dans les troubles en terme de chercher à reprendre le contrôle aussi et surtout pour les anciens pays coloniaux. Même dans le cas où il n’y avait pas de guerre civile, Moscou et Washington ont essayé de ramener certains États dans leur camp, mais aussi parce qu’en faisant comme ça, les deux superpuissances voulaient renforcer leur influence au sein de l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU.
The role of the United States puts the United States in the forefront in a global way, namely its predominant role in the Western field and also an attractiveness for those countries that wanted to achieve independence. This anti-colonialist orientation of Washington towards the old European countries and their colonies was manifested, for example, with the granting of independence to the Philippines in 1946. At the same time, there is the fact that the USSR actively conceives itself in its discourse as anti-imperialist. There is a form of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that puts the former European powers and their colonial systems in crisis. The UN has made a prescription for racism by almost completely removing the legitimacy of the colonial system. All these factors made it possible to start negotiations.


[[fichier:Onu1946-89GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|L’élargissement de l’ONU aux nouveaux États indépendants (1946-1989) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Onu1946-89.html atlas-historique.net]]]
In the States, there was an indirect administration, namely the British colonies, there were fewer problems than in the model where there was a direct administration model. States that decolonized from the British indirect system had fewer problems. It was above all the existence of large white immigrant communities that made decolonization complicated. These populations could not be abandoned or repatriated. Often, independence movements based on the fight against European colonialism have very quickly disintegrated, leading to civil wars in several countries. This situation was particularly devastating because, in the context of the Cold War, it very quickly provided an opportunity for world powers in turmoil to seek to regain control also and especially for the former colonial countries. Even in the absence of a civil war, Moscow and Washington tried to bring some states back into their camp, but also because by doing so, the two superpowers wanted to strengthen their influence in the UN General Assembly.


Ces nouveaux États ont tenté de se retirer de la Guerre froide lançant le mouvement des non-alignés à Bandung en 1955. Ce mouvement doit se lire dans le contexte d’une tentative de ces pays à grand potentiel de chercher et trouver une place à côté du système bipolaire des superpuissances. Ce mouvement des non-alignés était porté par l’Inde, la Yougoslavie, mais aussi par l’Égypte. Ce mouvement était pratiquement une illusion de penser échapper à la Guerre froide. C’est pays ont aussi eu un rôle, leur développement étant fortement marqué par la Guerre froide. En revanche, les non-alignés ont joué un rôle important dans la décolonisation et la politique de développement surtout aux Nations Unies.
[[fichier:Onu1946-89GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|The enlargement of the United Nations to include the New Independent States (1946-1989) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Onu1946-89.html atlas-historique.net]]]


L’ONU s’est occupée de la décolonisation de manière variée. Les territoires sous de s l’ONU ont remplacés le système des mandats de la Société des Nations par un statut de tutelle. L’idée était de redéfinir ce qu’étaient des « territoires dépendants ». L’ONU a dû clarifier ce qu’elle entendait par territoire dépendant. L’ONU a joué un rôle important pour tenter de définir le statut de ces deux pays.
These new states tried to withdraw from the Cold War, launching the non-aligned movement in Bandung in 1955. This movement must be seen in the context of an attempt by these countries with great potential to seek and find a place alongside the bipolar system of the superpowers. This non-aligned movement was led by India, Yugoslavia, but also by Egypt. This movement was almost an illusion to think of escaping the Cold War. These countries also had a role to play, their development being strongly marked by the Cold War. On the other hand, non-aligned countries have played an important role in decolonization and development policy, especially in the United Nations.


= Le règlement pacifique des différends =
The United Nations has dealt with decolonization in a variety of ways. The territories under the UN have replaced the League of Nations mandate system with a guardianship status. The idea was to redefine what "dependent territories" were. The UN had to clarify what it meant by dependent territory. The United Nations has played an important role in trying to define the status of these two countries.


Les Nations Unies visent à régler pacifiquement les différends. L’article 33 dit {{citation|Les parties à tout différend dont la prolongation est susceptible de menacer le maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationale doivent en rechercher la solution, avant tout, par voie de négociation, d’enquête, de médiation, de conciliation, d’arbitrage, de règlement judiciaire, de recours aux organismes ou accords régionaux, ou par d’autres moyens pacifiques de leur choix. Le Conseil de sécurité, s’il le juge nécessaire, invite les parties à régler leur différend par de tels moyens}}. Les instruments qui se mettent en place relèvent de la Conférence de La Haye de 1892 et qui était en partie contenue dans le Pacte de la Société des Nations. L’article 36 dit que {{citation|Le Conseil de sécurité peut, à tout moment de l’évolution d’un différend de la nature mentionnée à l’Article 33 ou d’une situation analogue, recommander les procédures ou méthodes d’ajustement appropriées}}, soulignant le rôle important du Conseil de sécurité. L’article 39 règle les compétences du Conseil de sécurité : {{citation|Le Conseil de sécurité constate l’existence d’une menace contre la paix, d’une rupture de la paix ou d’un acte d’agression et fait des recommandations ou décide quelles mesures seront prises conformément aux Articles 41 et 42 pour maintenir ou rétablir la paix et la sécurité internationales}}. L’article 40 dit que le Conseil de sécurité peut prendre des mesures provisoires : {{citation|Afin d’empêcher la situation de s’aggraver, le Conseil de sécurité, avant de faire les recommandations ou de décider des mesures à prendre conformément à l’Article 39, peut inviter les parties intéressées à se conformer aux mesures provisoires qu’il juge nécessaires ou souhaitables. Ces mesures provisoires ne préjugent en rien les droits, les prétentions ou la position des parties intéressées. En cas de non-exécution de ces mesures provisoires, le Conseil de sécurité tient dûment compte de cette défaillance}}. L’article 41 règle les mesures qui sont prises avant de prendre des mesures militaires {{citation|Le Conseil de sécurité peut décider quelles mesures n’impliquant pas l’emploi de la force armée doivent être pris pour donner effet à ses décisions, et peut inviter les Membres des Nations Unies à appliquer ces mesures. Celles-ci peuvent comprendre l’interruption complète ou partielle des relations économiques et des communications ferroviaires, maritimes, aériennes, postales, télégraphiques, radioélectriques et des autres moyens de communication, ainsi que la rupture des relations diplomatiques}}. Ces mesures qui étaient déjà prévues par la Société des Nations, si on est dans un système peu universelle, cela n’a pas beaucoup d’effet. Si on est dans un système universel, cela signifie que ces mesures peuvent avoir un certain poids puisqu’un État soumis à ces mesures devient un parti. L’article 42 dit : {{citation|Si le Conseil de sécurité estime que les mesures prévues à l’Article 41 seraient inadéquates ou qu’elles se sont révélées telles, il peut entreprendre, au moyen de forces aériennes, navales ou terrestres, toute action qu’il juge nécessaire au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la sécurité internationales. Cette action peut comprendre des démonstrations, des mesures de blocus et d’autres opérations exécutées par des forces aériennes, navales ou terrestres de Membres des Nations Unies.}}. L’article 43 stipule que {{citation|1. Tous les Membres des Nations Unies, afin de contribuer au maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales, s’engagent à mettre à la disposition du Conseil de sécurité, sur son invitation et conformément à un accord spécial ou à des accords spéciaux, les forces armées, l’assistance et les facilités, y compris le droit de passage, nécessaires au maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales.}}. Il y a un nouvel élément des relations internationales à savoir une organisation internationale qui a une propre force armée ce qui n’était pas le cas dans le cadre de la Société des Nations.
= The peaceful settlement of disputes =


= La question de Berlin et le Blocus de Berlin =
The United Nations aims to resolve disputes peacefully. Article 33 states {{citation|The parties to any dispute the extension of which is likely to threaten the maintenance of international peace and security shall seek a solution, first and foremost, by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, recourse to regional bodies or arrangements, or by other peaceful means of their choice. The Security Council, if it deems it necessary, invites the parties to settle their dispute by such means}}. The instruments that are being put in place fall under the jurisdiction of the Hague Conference of 1892, which was partly contained in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Article 36 states that {{citation|The Security Council may, at any time during the evolution of a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 or a similar situation, recommend appropriate adjustment procedures or methods}}, underlining the important role of the Security Council. Article 39 regulates the powers of the Security Council: {{citation|The Security Council shall determine the existence of a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace or an act of aggression and shall make recommendations or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42 to maintain or restore international peace and security}}. Article 40 states that the Security Council may take interim measures: {{citation|In order to prevent the situation from worsening, the Security Council, before making recommendations or deciding on measures to be taken in accordance with Article 39, may invite the parties concerned to comply with any interim measures it considers necessary or desirable. These provisional measures are without prejudice to the rights, claims or positions of the interested parties. In the event of failure to comply with these provisional measures, the Security Council shall take due account of such failure}}. Article 41 regulates the measures that are taken before military measures are taken {{citation|The Security Council may decide which measures not involving the use of armed force shall be taken to give effect to its decisions, and may invite Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include the complete or partial interruption of economic relations and communications by rail, sea, air, air, post, telegraph, radio and other means of communication, as well as the termination of diplomatic relations}}. These measures, which were already planned by the League of Nations, if we are in a system that is not very universal, it does not have much effect. If we are in a universal system, this means that these measures can have a certain weight since a State subject to these measures becomes a party. Article 42 states: {{citation|If the Security Council considers that the measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved inadequate, it may take any action by air, sea or land forces that it considers necessary for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security. This action may include demonstrations, blockade measures and other operations by air, sea or land forces of United Nations Members.}}. Article 43 stipulates that {{citation|1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, at its invitation and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, the armed forces, assistance and facilities, including the right of passage, necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.}}. There is a new element in international relations, namely an international organization with its own armed force, which was not the case in the League of Nations.


Après la défaite Allemagne, l’Allemagne a été divisée entre puissances victorieuses partagées entre les États-Unis, la Grande-Bretagne, l’URSS et la France. L’Allemagne n’est plus considérée comme un État autonome. Les alliés, avec la déclaration de Postdam en 1945, sont allés contre le droit international qui était valable jusqu’à présent. Le droit international est quelque chose de dynamique est qui reflète toujours le développement réel de la situation politique. La Suisse ne va jamais accepter l’autorité suprême des alliés sur l’Allemagne, la Suisse ne veut pas liquider les avoirs allemands comme voulaient le faire les alliés.
= The Berlin issue and the Berlin Blockade =
 
After the defeat of Germany, Germany was divided into victorious powers shared between the United States, Great Britain, the USSR and France. Germany is no longer considered an autonomous state. The allies, with the Potsdam Declaration in 1945, went against international law that had been valid until now. International law is something dynamic and always reflects the real development of the political situation. Switzerland will never accept the supreme authority of the allies over Germany, Switzerland does not want to liquidate German assets as the allies wanted to do.


[[Fichier:dmoi blocus de berlin.png|vignette]]
[[Fichier:dmoi blocus de berlin.png|vignette]]


Le Blocus de Berlin est la première crise de la Guerre froide dans le sens où elle oppose les deux grandes superpuissances. Truman va définir le containment et le plan Marshall pour la reconstruction de l’Europe. Le plan Marshall devait aussi s’appliquer aux pays communistes avec une tentative insidieuse d’y introduire le capitalisme. Le ministre des affaires soviétique Molotov quitte la conférence des ministres des Affaires étrangères sur la question du plan Marshall à Paris signant une première grande rupture le 12 juillet 1947. Aux yeux de l’ouest, les troubles en Tchécoslovaquie en 1948 symbolisent l’attitude hostile de Moscou. En réaction la Grande-Bretagne, la France et les Benelux signent le pacte de Bruxelles donnant la naissance en 1949 de l’OTAN en dehors du système des Nations Unies. Ce développement est considéré comme l’Union soviétique comme une grande provocation. L’URSS va réagir à cette provocation par le Blocus de la capitale allemande qui était aussi divisée en quatre parties.
The Berlin Blockade was the first crisis of the Cold War in the sense that it pitted the two great superpowers against each other. Truman will define the containment and the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe. The Marshall Plan was also to apply to the communist countries with an insidious attempt to introduce capitalism into them. Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Molotov leaves the Foreign Ministers' Conference on the Marshall Plan issue in Paris signing a first major breakthrough on July 12, 1947. In the eyes of the West, the unrest in Czechoslovakia in 1948 symbolized Moscow's hostile attitude. In response, Great Britain, France and the Benelux countries signed the Brussels Pact giving birth to NATO in 1949 outside the United Nations system. This development is considered as the Soviet Union as a great provocation. The USSR will react to this provocation by the blockade of the German capital, which was also divided into four parts.
 
Historical interpretations have often interpreted this Soviet blockade of the capital as a major mistake on the part of the Soviet Union because this measure primarily affected a civilian population, triggering a major international wave of solidarity towards the western camp. This resulted in the establishment of an air bridge to bring in supplies and bring back requisitioned documents. Article 33 of the UN Charter should have been applied, but this was not possible since four of the five powers that had veto power were directly involved in this case, which did not make things any easier. The Soviet Union was of the view that matters related to Germany concerned only the Allies and not the UN, so a meeting of the Allied Foreign Ministers should be organised. Opposing the will of the Soviet Union, the Security Council decided to deal with the Berlin issue. Finally, it is in the background that the United States and the Soviet Union had to reach an agreement, being a success of UN diplomacy.


Les interprétations historiques ont souvent interprété ce blocus soviétique de la capitale comme une grande erreur de la part de l’Union soviétique parce que cette mesure touchait en premier lieu une population civile déclenchant une grande vague internationale de solidarité vers le camp de l’ouest. Cela a donné lieu à la mise en place d’un pont aérien pour apporter de l’approvisionnement et rapporter des documents réquisitionnés. On aurait dû appliquer l’article 33 de la Charte de l’ONU, mais cela n’était pas possible vu que quatre parmi les cinq puissances qui avaient un droit de véto étaient directement impliquées dans cette affaire ne rendant pas les choses plus simples. L’Union soviétique était du point de vue que les affaires liées à l’Allemagne concernaient que les alliés et pas l’ONU donc il fallait organiser une rencontre des ministres des Affaires étrangères des alliés. S’opposant à la volonté des l’Union soviétique, le Conseil de sécurité décida de traiter de la question de Berlin. On peut retenir que pour finir, c’est dans les coulisses que les États-Unis et l’Union soviétique ont dû se mettre d’accord étant un succès de la diplomatie onusienne.
[[fichier:pix580_GHI_p961Berlin_E.jpg|left|thumb|350px|IEG-MAPS, Institute of European History, Mainz / © A. Kunz, 2004 - [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/map.cfm?map_id=329 German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)]]]
[[fichier:pix580_GHI_p961Berlin_E.jpg|left|thumb|350px|IEG-MAPS, Institute of European History, Mainz / © A. Kunz, 2004 - [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/map.cfm?map_id=329 German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)]]]


La question de savoir à quel point le rôle de l’ONU a été décisif est une question qui est encore controversée dans l’interprétation des historiens. Cette histoire a renforcé l’image de l’ONU parce qu’elle a montré que l’ONU dispose d’organes capables et de moyens variés. Ce blocus a eu lieu jusqu’en mai 1949 est la création de la République fédérale d’Allemagne. C’était toujours la partie occidentale qui a fait le premier pas avant d’avoir une réaction du côté communiste.
The question of how decisive the role of the United Nations has been is a question that is still controversial in the interpretation of historians. This story has strengthened the image of the United Nations because it has shown that the United Nations has capable bodies and varied means. This blockade took place until May 1949, when the Federal Republic of Germany was created. It was always the western part that took the first step before there was a reaction from the communist side.
 
The Berlin question was to be the scene of strong opposition a second time during the Cold War. In 1961, when the communist regime of the German communist republic built the Berlin Wall. In particular, this wall was to prevent the escape of young East Germans. This border posed a serious threat to the economic development and very existence of the German Democratic Republic. In the summer of 1961, thousands of young Germans left communist Germany to arrive in federal Germany. Already in the 1950s, the communists of democratic Germany had begun to build a fairly strong border system. The important thing to remember is that in 1961, the general secretary of the Communist Party, Khrushchev, tried to intimidate the new President of the United States Kennedy. It did not work and we must see that, beyond American propaganda, it was a relief for the United States to have this wall in order to calm a situation that could turn dangerous.
 
= The classic conflicts of the Cold War =
 
== Kashmir Conflict ==
 
[[fichier:Inde1948GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|Independence and partition of India (1947-1948) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Inde1948.html atlas-historique.net]]]
 
The Kashmir conflict is a very good example that allows us to observe all kinds of issues such as pre-colonial structures, how the British exercised power, issues related to religion. Some of it was Islamic and some of it was Hindu. This leads to all kinds of development and the British who control these territories accept the theory of two nations and allow the creation of different states. The example of Kashmir clearly shows that the decolonization process has been able to revive old and new conflicts that for some, as in the case of Kashmir, are still going on today.
 
[[fichier:CachemireGF.gif|center|thumb|350px|Kashmir: a war at an altitude of more than 4,000 m - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Cachemire.html atlas-historique.net]]]
 
The problem of decolonization has opened up old conflicts that continue today. Pakistan, was integrated into the Western bloc during the Cold War and one can even see the close relationship between India and the Soviet Union even though India was a non-aligned country signing a friendship treaty with Moscow. There is an ambiguity in the role of the superpowers in the context of decolonization wars.
 
== Korean War ==


La question de Berlin va être une deuxième fois le théâtre de l’opposition forte au sein de la Guerre froide. En 1961, lorsque le régime communiste de la république communiste allemande construit le mur de Berlin. Ce mur devait en particulier empêcher la fuite des jeunes Allemands de l’Est. Cette frontière menaçait sévèrement le développement économique et l’existence même de la République démocratique allemande. En été 1961, de milliers de jeunes allemands quittaient l’Allemagne communiste pour arriver en Allemagne fédérale. Déjà dans les années 1950, les communistes de l’Allemagne démocratique avaient commencé à construire un système de frontières assez fortes. Ce qu’il est important de retenir est qu’en 1961, le secrétaire général du parti communiste, Khrouchtchev a essayé d’intimider le nouveau président des États-Unis Kennedy. Cela n’a pas marché et il faut voir qu’au-delà de la propagande américaine, c’était un soulagement pour les États-Unis d’avoir ce mur afin d’apaiser une situation qui pouvait tourner de façon dangereuse.
[[fichier:Coree1950-AGF.gif|right|thumb|350px|The Korean War, July-September 1950 - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Coree1950-A.html atlas-historique.net]]]


= Les conflits classiques de la Guerre froide =
The two occupation zones were set up around the 38th parallel after the Second World War. There has been an interesting role within the United Nations. When the South Korean government turned to the United Nations because there was this war situation, the USSR was absent from this commission because it had been boycotting this commission since the early 1950s as a reaction as a non-recognition of the People's Republic of China and it was Taiwan's China representing China at the United Nations. In this context, the Security Council decided by 9 votes to 0 to punish North Korea without mentioning any economic sanctions.


== Conflit du Cachemire ==
[[fichier:Coree1951-53GF.gif|left|thumb|350px|The Korean War, January 1951-July 1953 - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Coree1951-53.html atlas-historique.net]]]
[[fichier:Inde1948GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|L’indépendance et la partition de l’Inde (1947-1948) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Inde1948.html atlas-historique.net]]]


Le conflit du Cachemire est un très bon exemple qui nous permet d’observer toute sorte de questions à savoir les structures précoloniales, comment les Britanniques ont exercé le pouvoir, les questions liées à la religion. Une partie était islamique et une partie était de religion hindoue. Cela amène à toute sorte de développement et les Britanniques qui contrôlent ces territoires acceptent la théorie des deux nations et permet la création des États différents. L’exemple du Cachemire montre clairement que le processus de décolonisation a pu raviver d’anciens et de nouveaux conflits qui pour certains comme pour le cas du Cachemire durent encore aujourd’hui.
The United States intervened with troops. Following this American intervention, the Security Council decided to give its full support to South Korea. The Soviet Union stated that this resolution was illegal because it had not participated in the meeting. 16 states took part in UN-led military operations even though most of the troops were American. In July, the Security Council decided that troops in Korea under the UN flag could act, placing the United States at the head of the coalition with MacArthur at its head. The United Nations no longer played any role in the subsequent armistice negotiations that continued until 1953.


[[fichier:CachemireGF.gif|center|thumb|350px|Cachemire : une guerre à plus de 4 000 m d’altitude - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Cachemire.html atlas-historique.net]]]
The Korean War has long been forgotten because it was lost in the wake of the Vietnam War. The Korean War was no less brutal than the Vietnam War. In the case of Korea, the UN has assumed the role as a forum for collective peacekeeping, which in any case was a unique affair that will not be repeated throughout the Cold War except for this UN intervention because of the Soviet Union's boycotting of the UN's work. The next one will take place after the fall of the Berlin Wall and Iraq's occupation of Kuwait.


Le problème de la décolonisation a ouvert d’anciens conflits qui durent aujourd’hui. Le Pakistan, a été intégrée dans le bloc de l’ouest pendant la Guerre froide et on peut même voir le rapport étroit qu’il y a eu entre l’Inde et l’Union soviétique même si l’Inde était un pays non- aligné signant un traité d’amitié avec Moscou. Il y a une ambiguïté du rôle des superpuissances dans le contexte des guerres de décolonisation.
== Vietnam War ==


== Guerre de Corée ==
[[fichier:IndochineGuerreGF.gif|right|thumb|350px|The Indochina War (1946-1954) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/IndochineGuerre.html atlas-historique.net]]]
[[fichier:Coree1950-AGF.gif|right|thumb|350px|La guerre de Corée, juillet-septembre 1950 - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Coree1950-A.html atlas-historique.net]]]


Les deux zones d’occupations se mettent en place autour du 38ème parallèle après la Deuxième Guerre mondiale. Il y a eu un rôle intéressant au sein des Nations Unies. Lorsque le gouvernement de la Corée du Sud s’est tourné vers les Nations Unies vu qu’il y avait cette situation de guerre, l’URSS était absente de cette commission parce qu’elle boycottait cette commission depuis le début des années 1950 comme réaction comme non-reconnaissance de la République populaire de Chine et s’était la Chine de Taiwan qui représentait la Chine aux Nations Unies. Dans ce contexte, le Conseil de sécurité a décidé à 9 voix contre 0 de punir la Corée du Nord sans mentionner aucune sanction économique.
It was a conflict that took place under French colonization. It must be said that in the context of the Cold War, the Security Council and the Assembly did not deal with the conflict at all. Although there was no formal UN engagement, Secretary General U Thant played an important role in speaking to the warring parties and his efforts were crowned with success at the 1973 Paris conference. It was these talks that finally led to a ceasefire between the two countries in 1972.


[[fichier:Coree1951-53GF.gif|left|thumb|350px|La guerre de Corée, janvier 1951-juillet 1953 - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Coree1951-53.html atlas-historique.net]]]
From 1883 to 1954, Vietnam was part of the French colony of Indochina with Cambodia and Laos. In 1930, the Vietnamese Communist Party was created by Ho Chi Minh. In 1941, Indochina became part of Japan's military sphere of influence. It was during this same year that Vietminh, the League for the Independence of Vietnam, was founded. In March 1945, Japan ended the French colonial administration. In September, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed. In 1968, U Thant succeeded in conducting negotiations leading to a ceasefire. Although the United Nations did not play a direct role, the function of the Secretary-General played a fairly important role.


Les États-Unis sont intervenus avec des troupes. À la suite de cette intervention américaine, le Conseil de sécurité a décidé d’accorder tout son soutien à la Corée du Sud. L’Union soviétique a déclaré que cette résolution était illégale du fait qu’elle n’avait pas participé à la réunion. 16 États ont pris part à des opérations militaires conduites par l’ONU même si la majeure partie des troupes était américaine. En juillet, le Conseil de sécurité a décidé que les troupes en Corée sous drapeau de l’ONU pouvaient agir plaçant les États-Unis à la tête de la coalition avec MacArthur à sa tête. L’ONU ne joue plus aucun rôle dans les négociations d’armistice qui suivent se prolongeant jusqu’en 1953.
From 1941 to 1945 the Vietminh war against Japan took place. From 1946 to 1954 the Indochina War between France and Vietminh took place. A transition period took place from 1954 to 1964 - 1965. From 1965 to 1973 took place the Vietnam War between South Vietnam allied with the United States against North Vietnam and Vietcong supported by the USSR and China. From 1973 to 1975 there was a civil war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. In 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia and in 1979 there was a war against China.


La Guerre de Corée a longtemps été comme oubliée parce que perdue de vue à la suite de la Guerre du Vietnam. La Guerre de Corée n’était pas moins brutale que la Guerre du Vietnam. Dans le cas de la Corée, l’ONU a assurée le rôle en tant qu’instance du maintien collectif de la paix qui en tout cas était une affaire unique qui ne va plus se répéter pendant toute la durée de la Guerre froide sauf cette intervention de l’ONU à cause du fait que l’Union soviétique ait boycotté les travaux de l’ONU. La prochaine aura lieu après la chute du mur de Berlin et l’occupation du Koweït par l’Irak.
== The Palestinian question ==


== Guerre du Vietnam ==
[[fichier:Palestine1948GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|The end of the British protectorate in Palestine and the creation of the State of Israel (1948) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Palestine1948.html atlas-historique.net]]]
[[fichier:IndochineGuerreGF.gif|right|thumb|350px|La guerre d’Indochine (1946-1954) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/IndochineGuerre.html atlas-historique.net]]]


C’est un conflit qui prend lieu sous la colonisation française. Il faut dire que dans le contexte de la Guerre froide, le Conseil de sécurité et l’Assemblée ne se sont pas du tout occupés du conflit. Même s’il n’y a pas eu du point de vue formel d’engagement de l’ONU, le secrétaire général U Thant a joué un rôle important parlant aux partis en guerre et ses efforts vont être couronnés par un succès à la conférence de Paris de 1973. Ce sont ces entretiens qui finalement en 1972 ont amené à un cessé le feu entre les deux pays.
In 1947, Great Britain handed over its mandate to the UN. In November 1947, the UN General Assembly voted in favour of a separation of Palestine between a Jewish and an Arab state. Jerusalem must be under international administration. There was a complex situation that continues to this day. This conflict is a complicated conflict with several phases. There are very stratified ethnic and religious conditions that make it difficult to build homogeneous geographical territories.

De 1883 à 1954, le Vietnam fait partie de la colonie française d’Indochine avec le Cambodge et le Laos. En 1930 est créé le Parti communiste vietnamien par Hô Chi Minh. En 1941, l’Indochine devient une partie de la sphère d’influence militaire du Japon. C’est durant cette même année qu’est fondé le Vietminh qui est la Ligue pour l’indépendance du Viêtnam. En mars 1945, le Japon met fin à l’administration coloniale française. En septembre est proclamée la République démocratique du Vietnam. En 1968, U Thant est parvenu à mener des négociations menant à un cessez-le-feu. Même si les Nations Unies n’ont pas joué un rôle direct, la fonction du secrétaire général a joué un rôle assez important.


De 1941 à 1945 a lieu la guerre du Vietminh contre le Japon. De 1946 à 1954 prend place la Guerre d’Indochine entre la France et le Vietminh. Une période de transition a lieu de 1954 aux années 1964 – 1965. De 1965 à 1973 a lieu la Guerre du Vietnam entre le Sud-Vietnam allié des États-Unis USA contre le Nord-Vietnam et le Vietcong soutenu par l’URSS et la Chine. De 1973 a 1975 a lieu une guerre civile entre le Nord-Vietnam et le Sud-Vietnam. En 1978, le Vietnam envahit le Cambodge et en 1979 a lieu une guerre contre la Chine.
In 1948, Ben Gurion declared the proclamation of the State of Israel leading to the First Judeo-Arab War, which lasted until 1949. The Security Council has met to find a solution to this situation. There is no unanimity found within the Security Council.


== La question palestinienne ==
The Cold War and the political constellation will determine the policy of UN policy in a decisive way. Before the Cold War broke out completely, the two superpowers, the United States and the USSR, had the same policy and managed to create sufficient power to ensure that there was unanimity in the Security Council leading to an armistice allowing Israel to expand its territory. And the Security Council and the General Assembly have continued to address this issue.
[[fichier:Palestine1948GF.gif|right|thumb|350px|La fin du protectorat britannique en Palestine et la création de l’État d’Israël (1948) - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/Palestine1948.html atlas-historique.net]]]


En 1947, la Grande-Bretagne remet son mandat à l’ONU. En novembre 1947, l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU vote à la faveur une séparation de la Palestine entre un État juif et un État arabe. Jérusalem doit être sous administration internationale. Il y a eu une situation complexe qui continue encore aujourd’hui. Ce conflit est un conflit compliqué en plusieurs phases. Il y a des conditions ethniques et religieuses très stratifiées rendant difficile la construction de territoires géographiques homogènes.
== The Suez crisis ==


En 1948, Ben Gourion déclare la proclamation de l’État d’Israël menant à la Première Guerre judéo-arabe qui dura jusqu’à 1949. Le Conseil de sécurité s’est réuni afin de trouver une solution à cette situation. Il n’y a pas d’unanimité trouvée à l’intérieur du Conseil de sécurité.
In 1956, Nasser would nationalize the Suez Canal, which for Paris and London was an abuse leading to an organized military action with the State of Israel that began with the landing of an Israeli paratrooper in the Sinai. It is in this context that the United Nations will launch for the first time in the history of the UN a decision taken jointly by the United States and the USSR condemns the attack on Egypt, but leading to the veto of Britain and France. This shows very clearly that the United States was committed to further decolonization. Following the armistice, the UN Secretary General will impose a troop of armistices. This is one of the most important projects in the evolution of the history of the United Nations. This troop is the Blue Helmets, which is the most effective instrument available to the world community for peacekeeping.


La Guerre froide et la constellation politique vont définir de manière déterminante la politique de la politique de l’ONU. Avant que la Guerre froide n’éclate complètement, les deux superpuissances à savoir les États-Unis et l’URSS ont la même politique et arrivent à créer une puissance suffisante faisant qu’il y a une unanimité au Conseil de sécurité menant à un armistice permettant à Israël d’étendre son territoire. Et le Conseil de sécurité et l’Assemblée générale ont continué sans cesse de s’occuper de cette question.
== The Six Day War, the Kippur War and the Camp David Agreement ==


== La crise de Suez ==
This war led to a crushing war against Arabs that Israel will use to decisively expand its territory on the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the takeover of the Gaza Strip, Sinai and Jerusalem. In 1973 the Kippur War took place, in which the Arabs were defeated by the Israelis. In 1978, the Camp David Accords took place, laying the foundation for peace between Israel and Egypt, restoring the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.
En 1956, Nasser va étatiser le canal de Suez ce qui pour Paris et Londres était un abus menant à une action militaire organisée avec l’État d’Israël qui débute avec l’atterrissage d’un parachutiste israélien au Sinaï. C’est dans ce contexte que les Nations Unies vont mettre en route pour la première fois dans l’histoire de l’ONU une décision prise communément par les États-Unis et l’URSS condamne l’attaque contre l’Égypte, mais menant au véto de la Grande-Bretagne et de la France. Cela montre de manière très claire que les États-Unis étaient décidés à pousser la décolonisation. Suite à l’armistice, le secrétaire général de l’ONU va imposer une troupe d’armistices. C’est un projet qui est l’un des plus importants pour l’évolution de l’histoire de l’ONU. Cette troupe est les Casques bleus qui sont l’instrument le plus efficace dont dispose la communauté mondiale pour le maintien de la paix.


== La Guerre de six jour, la Guerre du Kippour et accord de Camp David ==
[[fichier:La crise de Suez (1956).png|center|thumb|350px|The Crise of Suez (1956) - [http://www.cvce.eu/obj/la_crise_de_suez_1956-fr-0e818a3e-b462-4b62-9171-0af5027970ac.html Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE)]]]
Cette a guerre menée à une guerre écrasante contre les Arabes qu’Israël va utiliser pour étendre son territoire de manière décisive sur le plateau du Golan, la Cisjordanie, la prise de la bande de Gaza, le Sinaï et Jérusalem. En 1953 a lieu la Guerre du Kippour où les Arabes sont vaincus par les Israéliens. En 1958 ont lieu les accords de Camp David posant une base pour la paix entre Israël et l’Égypte redonnant la péninsule du Sinaï à l’Égypte.


[[fichier:La crise de Suez (1956).png|center|thumb|350px|La crise de Suez (1956) - [http://www.cvce.eu/obj/la_crise_de_suez_1956-fr-0e818a3e-b462-4b62-9171-0af5027970ac.html Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE)]]]
== The cuba missile crisis ==


== La crise des missiles de cuba ==
[[fichier:La crise de Cuba (1962).png|right|thumb|350px|The Cuban crisis (1962) - [http://www.cvce.eu/obj/la_crise_de_cuba_1962-fr-79b64a33-0bfc-477b-b5db-94a8b358f652.html Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE)]]]
[[fichier:La crise de Cuba (1962).png|right|thumb|350px|La crise de Cuba (1962) - [http://www.cvce.eu/obj/la_crise_de_cuba_1962-fr-79b64a33-0bfc-477b-b5db-94a8b358f652.html Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE)]]]


La crise des missiles de Cuba est l’un des plus grands défis que l’ONU a dû surmonter. En 1959, Castro entre de manière victorieuse dans la capitale de Cuba et prend possession du pouvoir chassant le dictateur Batista. Dans cette première phase, à partir de 1959, il y a des relations assez détendues entre les États- Unis et Cuba. La situation va se détériorer lorsque les Cubains communistes vont commencer à étatiser les biens américains. Il y a une escalade de la crise. Cuba avait peur d’une invasion américaine exigeant une réduction du personnel de l’ambassade des États-Unis. La Suisse va reprendre les intérêts américains à Cuba. En janvier 1961, une note américaine demande à la Suisse de reprendre et défendre les intérêts américains à Cuba<ref>Foreign Policy,. (2015). The Untold Story of the U.S. and Cuba’s Middleman.</ref>.
The Cuban missile crisis is one of the greatest challenges facing the United Nations. In 1959, Castro entered the Cuban capital in a victorious manner and took possession of the power driving out the dictator Batista. In this first phase, from 1959 onwards, there are quite relaxed relations between the United States and Cuba. The situation will deteriorate when the Cuban communists begin to state American property. There is an escalation of the crisis. Cuba was afraid of an American invasion demanding a reduction in the staff of the United States Embassy. Switzerland will take over American interests in Cuba. In January 1961, an American note asked Switzerland to take over and defend American interests in Cuba<ref>Foreign Policy,. (2015). The Untold Story of the U.S. and Cuba’s Middleman.</ref>.


À la suite de cette crise, il y a une tentative soutenue par le gouvernement américain d’une invasion de Cuba dans la baie des cochons. La situation va s’empirer vers octobre 1962, le président américain Kennedy va annoncer à la radio que les États-Unis ont la preuve que les soviétiques sont en train d’installer des rampes de missiles à Cuba pouvant atteindre les États-Unis.
As a result of this crisis, there is an attempt supported by the American government to invade Cuba in the Bay of Pigs. The situation worsened around October 1962, when US President Kennedy announced on the radio that the United States had proof that the Soviets were installing missile ramps in Cuba that could reach the United States.


Les États-Unis vont créer une zone de quarantaine par un blocus naval. Dans la charte de l’ONU est inscrite la liberté de circulation sur les mers, les États-Unis vont parler de « quarantaine » pour outrepasser cette limite. Il va y avoir une concession des deux côtés, Khrouchtchev acceptant d’enlever les missiles de Cuba et les États-Unis vont accepter de retirer les missiles stationnés en Turquie. L’ONU a eu un grand rôle à jouer dans le règlement de cette crise et les efforts de U Thann ont permis de diminuer la tension et de trouver des solutions. C’est grâce aux Nations Unies que des pourparlers et de discussions ont été amorcées même si la crise s’est réglée entre les deux superpuissances.
The United States will create a quarantine zone by a naval blockade. In the UN Charter is written the freedom of movement on the seas, the United States will talk about "quarantine" to exceed this limit. There will be a concession on both sides, with Khrushchev agreeing to remove the missiles from Cuba and the United States agreeing to remove the missiles stationed in Turkey. The United Nations had a major role to play in resolving this crisis and U Thann's efforts helped to reduce tension and find solutions. It is thanks to the United Nations that talks and discussions have been initiated even though the crisis has been resolved between the two superpowers.


= Utilisation du droit de véto =
= Use of the veto right =
Il y a une transition claire et nette de la période 1946 à 1965. Dans ces premiers 20 ans, il n’y a presque que des vétos qui sont placés par l’Union soviétique. À partir de 1966, il y a une transformation radicale et ce sont les États-Unis qui vont de plus en plus utiliser le droit de véto. L’augmentation du nombre d’États qu’il y a aux Nations Unies à partir de 1960 a amené à une perte de soutien de l’occident et donc ce il y a eu à long terme une compensation par un recours de plus en plus souvent au véto.
 
There is a clear and clear transition from 1946 to 1965. In these first 20 years, almost only vetos are placed by the Soviet Union. From 1966, there was a radical transformation and it was the United States that increasingly used the right of veto. The increase in the number of States at the United Nations from 1960 onwards led to a loss of support from the West and therefore, in the long term, there was compensation through an increasingly frequent use of the veto.


[[Fichier:utilisation du droit de véto depuis la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale.jpg|center|vignette]]
[[Fichier:utilisation du droit de véto depuis la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale.jpg|center|vignette]]


= Les Casques bleus =
= The Blue Helmets =


Cette carte date d’avant les évènements du 11 Septembre. Cette carte montre les contingents de l’ONU avec des impacts financiers importants avec notamment prés de 3 milliards pour l’Afrique. La question des Casques bleus est importante pour l’histoire des relations internationales à partir de la moitié des années 1950.
This map is from before the events of September 11th. This map shows the UN contingents with significant financial impacts, including nearly $3 billion for Africa. The issue of peacekeepers was important to the history of international relations from the mid-1950s onwards.


<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
Image:Opérations de maintien de la paix en cours au 30 juin 2005.png|Opérations de maintien de la paix en cours au 30 juin 2005  - [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/cartes/onu Le Monde Diplomatique]
Image:Opérations de maintien de la paix en cours au 30 juin 2005.png|Peacekeeping operations in progress as at 30 June 2005  - [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/cartes/onu Le Monde Diplomatique]
Image:La présence de l’ONU dans les pays en conflit en janvier 2000.jpg|La présence de l’ONU dans les pays en conflit en janvier 2000 - [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/cartes/onumdv49 Le Monde Diplomatique]
Image:La présence de l’ONU dans les pays en conflit en janvier 2000.jpg|The UN presence in conflict countries in January 2000 - [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/cartes/onumdv49 Le Monde Diplomatique]
</gallery>
</gallery>


En novembre 1960, l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU a adopté une évolution définissant l’autodétermination comme un droit. C’est une forme d’adoption définitive et radicale du principe que Lénine et Wilson avaient proclamé à la fin de la Première Guerre mondiale.
In November 1960, the UN General Assembly adopted an evolution defining self-determination as a right. It is a form of definitive and radical adoption of the principle that Lenin and Wilson proclaimed at the end of the First World War.
 
= The issue of decolonization =


= La question de la décolonisation =
Decolonized countries appeared before 1960. It is not only decolonization that is affecting Africa. The Dutch colony in the Pacific is occupied by Japanese troops. On the one hand, the submission of the local population was worse than that of the colonial powers, on the other hand, the Japanese had taken measures to strengthen the local indigenous movement, such as prohibiting the use of settler language in favour of the local language, but also promoting the creation of a nationalized army. In August 1945, Soekarno proclaimed Indonesia's independence, leading to complications with the Dutch government. The Dutch believed that as a European ally, it would have obtained the support of the United States to ensure its presence as a state.
Apparaissent les pays décolonisés avant 1960. Ce n’est pas seulement une décolonisation qui touche l’Afrique. La colonie néerlandaise dans le Pacifique est occupée par des troupes japonaises. D’un côté la soumission de la population locale était pire que celle des puissances coloniales, d’un autre côté, les Japonais avaient pris des mesures pour rendre plus fort le mouvement autochtone local comme avec l’interdiction de l’utilisation de la langue de colons favorisant la langue locale, mais aussi en favorisant la création d’une armée nationalise. En août 1945, Soekarno va proclamer l’indépendance de l’Indonésie menant à des complications avec le gouvernement néerlandais. Les Néerlandais pensaient qu’en temps qu’allié européen, il aurait obtenu le soutien des États-Unis afin de garantir leur présence en tant qu’État.


<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
Image:La décolonisation de l'Afrique.gif|La décolonisation de l’Afrique - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/AfriqueDecolonisation.html atlas-historique.net]
Image:La décolonisation de l'Afrique.gif|The decolonization of Africa - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/AfriqueDecolonisation.html atlas-historique.net]
Image:La décolonisation de l'Asie.gif|La décolonisation de l’Asie - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/AsieIndependance.html atlas-historique.net]
Image:La décolonisation de l'Asie.gif|The decolonization of Asia - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1945-1989/cartes/AsieIndependance.html atlas-historique.net]
</gallery>
</gallery>


La Guerre froide montre que les questions liées à la décolonisation se sont entremêlées entre Guerre froide et décolonisation et ce n’était plus le temps des puissances coloniales traditionnelles. Les États-Unis ont pris conscience et ont montrés que l’aide que les États-Unis avaient payée aux Pays-Bas dans le cadre du plan Marshal était similaire à la somme dépensée par les Néerlandais dans la guerre en Indonésie. C’est dans ce contexte que Truman a fini par rappeler les alliés néerlandais leur disant de mettre fin à leur pouvoir colonial. Le premier juillet 1950, sous la médiation américaine, les Néerlandais ont accepté l’indépendance totale des États-Unis d’Indonésie.
The Cold War shows that decolonization issues were intertwined between the Cold War and decolonization and it was no longer the time of the traditional colonial powers. The United States realized and demonstrated that the aid the United States had paid to the Netherlands under the Marshal Plan was similar to the amount spent by the Dutch in the war in Indonesia. It was in this context that Truman finally recalled the Dutch allies telling them to end their colonial power. On July 1, 1950, under American mediation, the Dutch accepted full independence from the United States of Indonesia.


= Annexes =
= Annexes =
Ligne 175 : Ligne 184 :
*W.S. Lucas. ‘The missing link? Patrick Dean, Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee.’ Contemporary British History. Vol.13 No. 2. 1999, pp. 117-125.
*W.S. Lucas. ‘The missing link? Patrick Dean, Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee.’ Contemporary British History. Vol.13 No. 2. 1999, pp. 117-125.
*P. Cradock. 2002. Know Your Enemy: How the JIC Saw the World. ‘Ch 18. Intelligence and Policy.
*P. Cradock. 2002. Know Your Enemy: How the JIC Saw the World. ‘Ch 18. Intelligence and Policy.
*“Security Council.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 74–98. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703520.


= Références =
= References =
<references/>
<references/>



Version actuelle datée du 28 janvier 2021 à 16:00


We will seek to analyse the role of the UN in the Cold War and try to assess the effectiveness of the UN in this period.

Languages

The UN and the beginning of the Cold War[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The situation after the Second World War[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

In 1945, the consequences of the Second World War became evident, with human and material losses surpassing what had been known until then. The most affected was the USSR with 25 million deaths, China, Germany, Poland and also Japan. The events of war and atrocities should be dealt with morally and legally. As after the First World War, isolated battles continued uninterruptedly and took place in the context of the Cold War. Technical and scientific discoveries during the war opened up new opportunities for civilians. These are mainly in the fields of aircraft, spacecraft, computer technology, drugs and medical processes. Atomic energy has given civil society a new form of energy that raises issues. The Second World War sparked democratization movements with groups in women's suffrage, attempts to suppress social classes in order to find a more stable social balance on both the liberal and communist sides. It is also necessary to situate the observation of Romani.

The first tensions[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The global constellation of powers had also evolved, the coalition of allies had remained surprisingly strong. After Germany's defeat, the coalition of winners quickly disintegrated. Already during the Second World War, tensions were felt, particularly regarding the opening of a second front and the organisation of the post-war period through war conferences. Both sides have made great concessions. Western allies opposed Stalin, particularly on territorial issues. The Baltic and Eastern countries had already been on the agenda since the Tehran conference. In January 1944, the Allies decided to divide Germany into zones of occupation. In 1944, Stalin and Churchill established zones of influence in Moscow in Eastern and Southern Eastern Europe. These zones of influence were defined with a percentage of control by the Soviet Union. For example, Romania was to be a 90% zone and Bulgaria 80% under communist control. This went against what Roosevelt wanted and his concept of "one world" while Stalin and Churchill remained in their way of thinking in the old imperialist style. We can see that Stalin who in August 1939 between the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact which had divided Europe into two camps, with the Western allies, even received more than he had negotiated with Hitler. Stalin opposed the Western allies on the issue of the right of peoples and post-war order based on democratic principles. For Stalin, democracies meant coups d'état with the support of the Red Army.

Tensions between the war allies have been felt ever more strongly since the Potsdam conference when Germany is already defeated, but there is still the war with Japan. At this conference, the personalities are no longer the same, Truman replaces Roosevelt and Attlee replaces Churchill who had not been re-elected. On the contrary, Stalin is still there. Truman does not hide from Stalin that he is quite irritated about the Soviet intervention in Eastern Europe. Open issues could not be resolved in Potsdam, mainly the German issue of prime importance for the Cold War and the issue of compensation for destruction during the war. There is no peace treaty with Germany, but there is one with Italy. Both atomic bombs exploded in Japan during this conference. There is a whole debate as to whether the Democratic administration has not given Stalin too many concessions, given that for Stalin's entry into the war against Japan, the United States will make many concessions and the war will end with the engagement of the bomb and not with the Soviet engagement.

The fire has been set between communism and capitalism. This duality will immediately change the logic that existed in the aftermath of the Second World War, already with the question of denazification, which will be stopped by the beginning of the Cold War, it is a question of integrating the Nazi elites to fight against the communist danger. The fascists will be reintegrated into the political system in order to have an elite against the fear of a coup d'état or a communist takeover. There is a great continuity of elites in fascist countries and this is especially the case in the field of justice.

The end of the Second World War is inextricably linked to the beginning of the Cold War. The Cold War is a consequence of the National Socialist Conquest War, the German question is at the centre of the Cold War. It is important to remember that 1945 marked a major change from the interwar period. While in the interwar period most of the world's major powers had only partially joined the world system, namely the United States, the USSR and Germany until 1926, this changed fundamentally after the Second World War. And the United States and the Soviet Union participated in the post-World War II order. The creation of the United Nations with the discourse of discontinuities with the League of Nations is primarily with the United States and the Soviet Union to maintain their position and enter this organization on the basis that it is not a continuation of a system that has not worked. The political weight of the traditional European powers has declined massively, even if in 1945, in London and Paris, it is not clear and difficult to accept. On the other hand, for Japan and Germany this is clear. This has facilitated the integration of countries that lost the Second World War into the community of democratic states, although the integration of the two Germanies into the United Nations will take a long time.

The first tensions that occurred during the beginning of the Cold War had an immediate impact within the UN. At the beginning, objections already appeared and therefore there are objections in the United Nations system through the use of the veto right. In 1946, the USSR delayed its withdrawal of troops to Northern Iran, the British had troops in Greece, Palestine, Arabs as well as Jews were trying to gain independence in Palestine. The coup in Czechoslovakia was a challenge for democratic states, while the Berlin blockade marked an important turning point in the history of the allies and ensured a definitive break.

Decolonization[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The creation of the United Nations (1946) - atlas-historique.net

Decolonization is probably the most significant development in the post-World War II period. The year 1960 is known as the "Year of Africa". This is the year of decolonization, the "magic" year for Africa, the year in which most African states gained their independence. The beginnings of decolonization are difficult to determine. It was above all at the Paris conference that the right to self-determination of peoples and the mandate system marked an important step forward in the independence of the colonies, even if independence did not prevail. The idea was that these territories could one day become independent.

Decolonization - atlas-historique.net

During the inter-war period, the supremacy of the whites remained uncontested even though the protest became ever greater. The indigenous elite of these colonies, often formed in Europe, were beginning to claim participation for economic and political gain in their countries. From the 1920s onwards, dissatisfied indigenous intellectuals joined the Communist Party, sharing a common struggle for colonial peoples. The establishment of the elite and the attractiveness of the Soviet system, which claims to be anti-colonialist, mean that the elites will meet partly behind communism. The colonies have lost the economic importance they had achieved in the 1920s. In the 1930s, with the economic and political crisis, there was a decline in the colonies that would change during the Second World War to provide raw materials and fighters. There is a deterioration in the perception of the role of white metropolises since the promises made are not kept. In 1945, the colonial powers faced the difficult question of how to deliver on the promises made. The state coffers were empty, the households were in debt. The idea of granting independence to the colonies was not at the forefront. The French, Belgians and Dutch did not want to separate from their possessions, at least not immediately. This situation worsened further at the beginning of the Cold War. Roosevelt had made no secret of his rejection of colonialism and put his allies under pressure.

The role of the United States puts the United States in the forefront in a global way, namely its predominant role in the Western field and also an attractiveness for those countries that wanted to achieve independence. This anti-colonialist orientation of Washington towards the old European countries and their colonies was manifested, for example, with the granting of independence to the Philippines in 1946. At the same time, there is the fact that the USSR actively conceives itself in its discourse as anti-imperialist. There is a form of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that puts the former European powers and their colonial systems in crisis. The UN has made a prescription for racism by almost completely removing the legitimacy of the colonial system. All these factors made it possible to start negotiations.

In the States, there was an indirect administration, namely the British colonies, there were fewer problems than in the model where there was a direct administration model. States that decolonized from the British indirect system had fewer problems. It was above all the existence of large white immigrant communities that made decolonization complicated. These populations could not be abandoned or repatriated. Often, independence movements based on the fight against European colonialism have very quickly disintegrated, leading to civil wars in several countries. This situation was particularly devastating because, in the context of the Cold War, it very quickly provided an opportunity for world powers in turmoil to seek to regain control also and especially for the former colonial countries. Even in the absence of a civil war, Moscow and Washington tried to bring some states back into their camp, but also because by doing so, the two superpowers wanted to strengthen their influence in the UN General Assembly.

The enlargement of the United Nations to include the New Independent States (1946-1989) - atlas-historique.net

These new states tried to withdraw from the Cold War, launching the non-aligned movement in Bandung in 1955. This movement must be seen in the context of an attempt by these countries with great potential to seek and find a place alongside the bipolar system of the superpowers. This non-aligned movement was led by India, Yugoslavia, but also by Egypt. This movement was almost an illusion to think of escaping the Cold War. These countries also had a role to play, their development being strongly marked by the Cold War. On the other hand, non-aligned countries have played an important role in decolonization and development policy, especially in the United Nations.

The United Nations has dealt with decolonization in a variety of ways. The territories under the UN have replaced the League of Nations mandate system with a guardianship status. The idea was to redefine what "dependent territories" were. The UN had to clarify what it meant by dependent territory. The United Nations has played an important role in trying to define the status of these two countries.

The peaceful settlement of disputes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The United Nations aims to resolve disputes peacefully. Article 33 states « The parties to any dispute the extension of which is likely to threaten the maintenance of international peace and security shall seek a solution, first and foremost, by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, recourse to regional bodies or arrangements, or by other peaceful means of their choice. The Security Council, if it deems it necessary, invites the parties to settle their dispute by such means ». The instruments that are being put in place fall under the jurisdiction of the Hague Conference of 1892, which was partly contained in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Article 36 states that « The Security Council may, at any time during the evolution of a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 or a similar situation, recommend appropriate adjustment procedures or methods », underlining the important role of the Security Council. Article 39 regulates the powers of the Security Council: « The Security Council shall determine the existence of a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace or an act of aggression and shall make recommendations or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42 to maintain or restore international peace and security ». Article 40 states that the Security Council may take interim measures: « In order to prevent the situation from worsening, the Security Council, before making recommendations or deciding on measures to be taken in accordance with Article 39, may invite the parties concerned to comply with any interim measures it considers necessary or desirable. These provisional measures are without prejudice to the rights, claims or positions of the interested parties. In the event of failure to comply with these provisional measures, the Security Council shall take due account of such failure ». Article 41 regulates the measures that are taken before military measures are taken « The Security Council may decide which measures not involving the use of armed force shall be taken to give effect to its decisions, and may invite Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include the complete or partial interruption of economic relations and communications by rail, sea, air, air, post, telegraph, radio and other means of communication, as well as the termination of diplomatic relations ». These measures, which were already planned by the League of Nations, if we are in a system that is not very universal, it does not have much effect. If we are in a universal system, this means that these measures can have a certain weight since a State subject to these measures becomes a party. Article 42 states: « If the Security Council considers that the measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved inadequate, it may take any action by air, sea or land forces that it considers necessary for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security. This action may include demonstrations, blockade measures and other operations by air, sea or land forces of United Nations Members. ». Article 43 stipulates that « 1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, at its invitation and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, the armed forces, assistance and facilities, including the right of passage, necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security. ». There is a new element in international relations, namely an international organization with its own armed force, which was not the case in the League of Nations.

The Berlin issue and the Berlin Blockade[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

After the defeat of Germany, Germany was divided into victorious powers shared between the United States, Great Britain, the USSR and France. Germany is no longer considered an autonomous state. The allies, with the Potsdam Declaration in 1945, went against international law that had been valid until now. International law is something dynamic and always reflects the real development of the political situation. Switzerland will never accept the supreme authority of the allies over Germany, Switzerland does not want to liquidate German assets as the allies wanted to do.

Dmoi blocus de berlin.png

The Berlin Blockade was the first crisis of the Cold War in the sense that it pitted the two great superpowers against each other. Truman will define the containment and the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe. The Marshall Plan was also to apply to the communist countries with an insidious attempt to introduce capitalism into them. Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Molotov leaves the Foreign Ministers' Conference on the Marshall Plan issue in Paris signing a first major breakthrough on July 12, 1947. In the eyes of the West, the unrest in Czechoslovakia in 1948 symbolized Moscow's hostile attitude. In response, Great Britain, France and the Benelux countries signed the Brussels Pact giving birth to NATO in 1949 outside the United Nations system. This development is considered as the Soviet Union as a great provocation. The USSR will react to this provocation by the blockade of the German capital, which was also divided into four parts.

Historical interpretations have often interpreted this Soviet blockade of the capital as a major mistake on the part of the Soviet Union because this measure primarily affected a civilian population, triggering a major international wave of solidarity towards the western camp. This resulted in the establishment of an air bridge to bring in supplies and bring back requisitioned documents. Article 33 of the UN Charter should have been applied, but this was not possible since four of the five powers that had veto power were directly involved in this case, which did not make things any easier. The Soviet Union was of the view that matters related to Germany concerned only the Allies and not the UN, so a meeting of the Allied Foreign Ministers should be organised. Opposing the will of the Soviet Union, the Security Council decided to deal with the Berlin issue. Finally, it is in the background that the United States and the Soviet Union had to reach an agreement, being a success of UN diplomacy.

IEG-MAPS, Institute of European History, Mainz / © A. Kunz, 2004 - German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)

The question of how decisive the role of the United Nations has been is a question that is still controversial in the interpretation of historians. This story has strengthened the image of the United Nations because it has shown that the United Nations has capable bodies and varied means. This blockade took place until May 1949, when the Federal Republic of Germany was created. It was always the western part that took the first step before there was a reaction from the communist side.

The Berlin question was to be the scene of strong opposition a second time during the Cold War. In 1961, when the communist regime of the German communist republic built the Berlin Wall. In particular, this wall was to prevent the escape of young East Germans. This border posed a serious threat to the economic development and very existence of the German Democratic Republic. In the summer of 1961, thousands of young Germans left communist Germany to arrive in federal Germany. Already in the 1950s, the communists of democratic Germany had begun to build a fairly strong border system. The important thing to remember is that in 1961, the general secretary of the Communist Party, Khrushchev, tried to intimidate the new President of the United States Kennedy. It did not work and we must see that, beyond American propaganda, it was a relief for the United States to have this wall in order to calm a situation that could turn dangerous.

The classic conflicts of the Cold War[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Kashmir Conflict[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Independence and partition of India (1947-1948) - atlas-historique.net

The Kashmir conflict is a very good example that allows us to observe all kinds of issues such as pre-colonial structures, how the British exercised power, issues related to religion. Some of it was Islamic and some of it was Hindu. This leads to all kinds of development and the British who control these territories accept the theory of two nations and allow the creation of different states. The example of Kashmir clearly shows that the decolonization process has been able to revive old and new conflicts that for some, as in the case of Kashmir, are still going on today.

Kashmir: a war at an altitude of more than 4,000 m - atlas-historique.net

The problem of decolonization has opened up old conflicts that continue today. Pakistan, was integrated into the Western bloc during the Cold War and one can even see the close relationship between India and the Soviet Union even though India was a non-aligned country signing a friendship treaty with Moscow. There is an ambiguity in the role of the superpowers in the context of decolonization wars.

Korean War[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The Korean War, July-September 1950 - atlas-historique.net

The two occupation zones were set up around the 38th parallel after the Second World War. There has been an interesting role within the United Nations. When the South Korean government turned to the United Nations because there was this war situation, the USSR was absent from this commission because it had been boycotting this commission since the early 1950s as a reaction as a non-recognition of the People's Republic of China and it was Taiwan's China representing China at the United Nations. In this context, the Security Council decided by 9 votes to 0 to punish North Korea without mentioning any economic sanctions.

The Korean War, January 1951-July 1953 - atlas-historique.net

The United States intervened with troops. Following this American intervention, the Security Council decided to give its full support to South Korea. The Soviet Union stated that this resolution was illegal because it had not participated in the meeting. 16 states took part in UN-led military operations even though most of the troops were American. In July, the Security Council decided that troops in Korea under the UN flag could act, placing the United States at the head of the coalition with MacArthur at its head. The United Nations no longer played any role in the subsequent armistice negotiations that continued until 1953.

The Korean War has long been forgotten because it was lost in the wake of the Vietnam War. The Korean War was no less brutal than the Vietnam War. In the case of Korea, the UN has assumed the role as a forum for collective peacekeeping, which in any case was a unique affair that will not be repeated throughout the Cold War except for this UN intervention because of the Soviet Union's boycotting of the UN's work. The next one will take place after the fall of the Berlin Wall and Iraq's occupation of Kuwait.

Vietnam War[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The Indochina War (1946-1954) - atlas-historique.net

It was a conflict that took place under French colonization. It must be said that in the context of the Cold War, the Security Council and the Assembly did not deal with the conflict at all. Although there was no formal UN engagement, Secretary General U Thant played an important role in speaking to the warring parties and his efforts were crowned with success at the 1973 Paris conference. It was these talks that finally led to a ceasefire between the two countries in 1972.

From 1883 to 1954, Vietnam was part of the French colony of Indochina with Cambodia and Laos. In 1930, the Vietnamese Communist Party was created by Ho Chi Minh. In 1941, Indochina became part of Japan's military sphere of influence. It was during this same year that Vietminh, the League for the Independence of Vietnam, was founded. In March 1945, Japan ended the French colonial administration. In September, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed. In 1968, U Thant succeeded in conducting negotiations leading to a ceasefire. Although the United Nations did not play a direct role, the function of the Secretary-General played a fairly important role.

From 1941 to 1945 the Vietminh war against Japan took place. From 1946 to 1954 the Indochina War between France and Vietminh took place. A transition period took place from 1954 to 1964 - 1965. From 1965 to 1973 took place the Vietnam War between South Vietnam allied with the United States against North Vietnam and Vietcong supported by the USSR and China. From 1973 to 1975 there was a civil war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. In 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia and in 1979 there was a war against China.

The Palestinian question[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The end of the British protectorate in Palestine and the creation of the State of Israel (1948) - atlas-historique.net

In 1947, Great Britain handed over its mandate to the UN. In November 1947, the UN General Assembly voted in favour of a separation of Palestine between a Jewish and an Arab state. Jerusalem must be under international administration. There was a complex situation that continues to this day. This conflict is a complicated conflict with several phases. There are very stratified ethnic and religious conditions that make it difficult to build homogeneous geographical territories.

In 1948, Ben Gurion declared the proclamation of the State of Israel leading to the First Judeo-Arab War, which lasted until 1949. The Security Council has met to find a solution to this situation. There is no unanimity found within the Security Council.

The Cold War and the political constellation will determine the policy of UN policy in a decisive way. Before the Cold War broke out completely, the two superpowers, the United States and the USSR, had the same policy and managed to create sufficient power to ensure that there was unanimity in the Security Council leading to an armistice allowing Israel to expand its territory. And the Security Council and the General Assembly have continued to address this issue.

The Suez crisis[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

In 1956, Nasser would nationalize the Suez Canal, which for Paris and London was an abuse leading to an organized military action with the State of Israel that began with the landing of an Israeli paratrooper in the Sinai. It is in this context that the United Nations will launch for the first time in the history of the UN a decision taken jointly by the United States and the USSR condemns the attack on Egypt, but leading to the veto of Britain and France. This shows very clearly that the United States was committed to further decolonization. Following the armistice, the UN Secretary General will impose a troop of armistices. This is one of the most important projects in the evolution of the history of the United Nations. This troop is the Blue Helmets, which is the most effective instrument available to the world community for peacekeeping.

The Six Day War, the Kippur War and the Camp David Agreement[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

This war led to a crushing war against Arabs that Israel will use to decisively expand its territory on the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the takeover of the Gaza Strip, Sinai and Jerusalem. In 1973 the Kippur War took place, in which the Arabs were defeated by the Israelis. In 1978, the Camp David Accords took place, laying the foundation for peace between Israel and Egypt, restoring the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.

The cuba missile crisis[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The Cuban missile crisis is one of the greatest challenges facing the United Nations. In 1959, Castro entered the Cuban capital in a victorious manner and took possession of the power driving out the dictator Batista. In this first phase, from 1959 onwards, there are quite relaxed relations between the United States and Cuba. The situation will deteriorate when the Cuban communists begin to state American property. There is an escalation of the crisis. Cuba was afraid of an American invasion demanding a reduction in the staff of the United States Embassy. Switzerland will take over American interests in Cuba. In January 1961, an American note asked Switzerland to take over and defend American interests in Cuba[6].

As a result of this crisis, there is an attempt supported by the American government to invade Cuba in the Bay of Pigs. The situation worsened around October 1962, when US President Kennedy announced on the radio that the United States had proof that the Soviets were installing missile ramps in Cuba that could reach the United States.

The United States will create a quarantine zone by a naval blockade. In the UN Charter is written the freedom of movement on the seas, the United States will talk about "quarantine" to exceed this limit. There will be a concession on both sides, with Khrushchev agreeing to remove the missiles from Cuba and the United States agreeing to remove the missiles stationed in Turkey. The United Nations had a major role to play in resolving this crisis and U Thann's efforts helped to reduce tension and find solutions. It is thanks to the United Nations that talks and discussions have been initiated even though the crisis has been resolved between the two superpowers.

Use of the veto right[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

There is a clear and clear transition from 1946 to 1965. In these first 20 years, almost only vetos are placed by the Soviet Union. From 1966, there was a radical transformation and it was the United States that increasingly used the right of veto. The increase in the number of States at the United Nations from 1960 onwards led to a loss of support from the West and therefore, in the long term, there was compensation through an increasingly frequent use of the veto.

Utilisation du droit de véto depuis la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale.jpg

The Blue Helmets[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

This map is from before the events of September 11th. This map shows the UN contingents with significant financial impacts, including nearly $3 billion for Africa. The issue of peacekeepers was important to the history of international relations from the mid-1950s onwards.

In November 1960, the UN General Assembly adopted an evolution defining self-determination as a right. It is a form of definitive and radical adoption of the principle that Lenin and Wilson proclaimed at the end of the First World War.

The issue of decolonization[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Decolonized countries appeared before 1960. It is not only decolonization that is affecting Africa. The Dutch colony in the Pacific is occupied by Japanese troops. On the one hand, the submission of the local population was worse than that of the colonial powers, on the other hand, the Japanese had taken measures to strengthen the local indigenous movement, such as prohibiting the use of settler language in favour of the local language, but also promoting the creation of a nationalized army. In August 1945, Soekarno proclaimed Indonesia's independence, leading to complications with the Dutch government. The Dutch believed that as a European ally, it would have obtained the support of the United States to ensure its presence as a state.

The Cold War shows that decolonization issues were intertwined between the Cold War and decolonization and it was no longer the time of the traditional colonial powers. The United States realized and demonstrated that the aid the United States had paid to the Netherlands under the Marshal Plan was similar to the amount spent by the Dutch in the war in Indonesia. It was in this context that Truman finally recalled the Dutch allies telling them to end their colonial power. On July 1, 1950, under American mediation, the Dutch accepted full independence from the United States of Indonesia.

Annexes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

  • Monde-diplomatique.fr,. (2015). Bandung ou la fin de l’ère coloniale, par Jean Lacouture (Le Monde diplomatique, avril 2005). Retrieved 17 July 2015, from http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2005/04/LACOUTURE/12062 (Archive copy)
  • Foreign Policy,. (2015). The Untold Story of the U.S. and Cuba’s Middleman. Retrieved 4 August 2015, from http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/08/03/the-untold-story-of-the-u-s-and-cubas-middleman/?utm_content=bufferebc5d&utm_medium= (Archive copy)
  • W.P. Deac. ‘Duel for the Suez Canal.’ Military History, Vol. 18 Issue 1. Apr2001, pp. 58- 64.
  • P.H.J. Davies. 2012. Intelligence and Government in Britain and the United States, Vol. 2. ‘Ch 7: The Great Centralization, 1957-66’, pp. 163-177.
  • R.J. Aldrich. 2001. The Hidden Hand. ‘Ch 21: Defeat in the Middle East: Iran and Suez’, pp. 464-494.
  • W.S. Lucas. ‘The missing link? Patrick Dean, Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee.’ Contemporary British History. Vol.13 No. 2. 1999, pp. 117-125.
  • P. Cradock. 2002. Know Your Enemy: How the JIC Saw the World. ‘Ch 18. Intelligence and Policy.
  • “Security Council.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 74–98. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703520.

References[modifier | modifier le wikicode]