« European organisations and their relations with Switzerland » : différence entre les versions

De Baripedia
Aucun résumé des modifications
(13 versions intermédiaires par le même utilisateur non affichées)
Ligne 7 : Ligne 7 :
  | assistants =   
  | assistants =   
  | enregistrement =  
  | enregistrement =  
  | cours = [[Introduction au droit]]
  | cours = [[Introduction to law]]
  | lectures =
  | lectures =
*[[Définition du droit]]
*[[The definition of law]]
*[[L’État]]
*[[The State]]
*[[Les différentes branches du droit]]
*[[The different branches of law]]
*[[Les sources du droit]]
*[[The sources of law]]
*[[Les grandes traditions formatrices du droit]]
*[[The great formative traditions of law]]
*[[Les éléments de la relation juridique]]
*[[The elements of the legal relationship]]
*[[L’application du droit]]
*[[The application of law]]
*[[La mise en œuvre d’une loi]]
*[[The implementation of a law]]
*[[L’évolution de la Suisse des origines au XXème siècle]]
*[[The evolution of Switzerland from its origins to the 20th century]]
*[[Le cadre juridique interne de la Suisse]]
*[[Switzerland's domestic legal framework]]
*[[La structure d’État, le régime politique et la neutralité  de la Suisse]]
*[[Switzerland's state structure, political system and neutrality]]
*[[L’évolution des relations internationales de la fin du XIXe au milieu du XXe siècle]]
*[[The evolution of international relations from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century]]
*[[Les organisations universelles]]
*[[The universal organizations]]
*[[Les organisations européennes et leurs relations avec la Suisse]]
*[[European organisations and their relations with Switzerland]]
*[[Les catégories et les générations de droits fondamentaux]]
*[[Categories and generations of fundamental rights]]
*[[Les origines des droits fondamentaux]]
*[[The origins of fundamental rights]]
*[[Les déclarations des droits de la fin du XVIIIe siècle]]
*[[Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century]]
*[[Vers l’édification d’une conception universelle des droits fondamentaux au XXe siècle]]
*[[Towards the construction of a universal conception of fundamental rights in the 20th century]]
}}
}}


Ligne 32 : Ligne 32 :


{{Translations
{{Translations
| en = European organisations and their relations with Switzerland
| fr = Les organisations européennes et leurs relations avec la Suisse
| es = Las organizaciones europeas y sus relaciones con Suiza
| es = Las organizaciones europeas y sus relaciones con Suiza
}}
}}
Ligne 87 : Ligne 87 :
This protection is provided by a committee of experts chosen for their integrity and independence, they are entitled to visit the places where arrested persons are staying (prison, police station, psychiatric establishment, etc.). After each visit, the Committee shall submit a report to the State concerned containing recommendations aimed at better protecting the rights of persons deprived of their liberty. If the State refuses to take the recommendations into account, the report can be made public: the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on public opinion to denounce the conditions of detention of prisoners of war. However, this only applies to States that have signed the Convention.
This protection is provided by a committee of experts chosen for their integrity and independence, they are entitled to visit the places where arrested persons are staying (prison, police station, psychiatric establishment, etc.). After each visit, the Committee shall submit a report to the State concerned containing recommendations aimed at better protecting the rights of persons deprived of their liberty. If the State refuses to take the recommendations into account, the report can be made public: the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on public opinion to denounce the conditions of detention of prisoners of war. However, this only applies to States that have signed the Convention.


= L’Union européenne =
= The European Union =
{{Article détaillé|Institutions européennes et intégration européenne}}
{{Article détaillé|Institutions européennes et intégration européenne}}


[[Image:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F001192-0003, Bonn, Besuch Jean Monnet, Konrad Adenauer.jpg|thumb|Jean Monnet (gauche) avec Konrad Adenauer en 1953.]]
[[Image:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F001192-0003, Bonn, Besuch Jean Monnet, Konrad Adenauer.jpg|thumb|Jean Monnet (left) with Konrad Adenauer in 1953.]]


'''[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Monnet Jean Monnet]''' (1888-1979) est un économiste né à Cognac occupant avant la guerre différentes fonctions au sein du gouvernement français et de la [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Nations Société des Nations]. Après la guerre, le général de Gaulle fait appel à lui pour le nommer au poste de commissaire du plan afin de mener un programme d’industrialisation.  
Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was an economist born in Cognac who held various positions in the French government and the League of Nations before the war. After the war, General de Gaulle called on him to appoint him as commissioner of the plan in order to carry out an industrialization program.
 
The federalist approach advocated by the supporters of European confederalism aims to address the issue of state sovereignty. It would not overcome this obstacle and would limit intergovernmental cooperation.
 
It is to avoid this type of interference with sovereignty that he will propose to Foreign Ministers Robert Schuman a sectoral approach to the construction of Europe: the idea was to place certain key sectors of economic life under European supranational authority. It was not a question of confronting nationalisms, but of injecting into European life an integrating virus that could bring together European States in certain key sectors. It will make it possible to create de facto solidarity in key sectors.
 
The first idea is to bring coal and steel production under European control. It is a sectoral integration in a particular field that makes it possible to bypass the nationalist opposition.
 
In April 1951, the European Coal and Steel Community was established, which came into force in 1952. The treaty was signed by Germany, France, Benelux and Italy. It is headed by a supranational high authority headed by a college of senior officials independent of member governments. The first president is Jean Monnet.  
   
   
L’approche fédéraliste que prônaient les partisans du confédéralisme européen but sur la question des souverainetés des États. Elle ne permettrait pas de surmonter cet obstacle et limiterait la coopération intergouvernementale.  
The High Authority is responsible for managing the pooling of coal and steel resources. The decision and recommendations are binding on the 6 Member States themselves, which are represented by a Special Council of Ministers that works in conjunction with the High Authority. A Consultative Assembly composed of members of the 6 national parliaments completes it. This institutional framework is also supplemented by a Court of Justice.  
   
   
C’est pour éviter ce type d’entrave à la souveraineté qu’il va proposer aux ministres des Affaires étrangères [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Schuman Robert Schuman] une approche sectorielle de la construction de l’Europe : l’idée était de placer sous autorité supranationale européenne certains secteurs clefs de la vie économique. Il ne s’agissait pas d’affronter les nationalismes, mais d’injecter dans la vie européenne un virus intégrateur qui puisse rassembler des États européens dans certains secteurs de première importance. Il va permettre de créer dans les secteurs clefs des solidarités de fait.  
After sectoral integration, two initiatives will be launched:
*create a European Defence Community: this is a failure due to the negative attitude of the French Parliament, which refuses to ratify the Treaty in 1954.
*Political Community: led to the signing in Rome in 1957 of a treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the "common market", which entered into force in 1958 and provides for a customs union and the implementation of a common agricultural policy. Later on, it will be transformed, in particular following the Maastricht Treaty, making the EEC a European Union. Other treaties will amend it, the most recent of which dates from 2007 and has been in force since 2009 is the Treaty of Lisbon.
To achieve the common objectives, in particular that of creating a single market, the Member States have developed a customs union and the free movement of products, but also services and people within a framework of harmonising economic policies and protecting free competition.
 
At European level, there is a tangle of competences:
 
*European Parliament: composed of members elected by direct universal suffrage in the Member States since 1979. Even if he is not the legislator, he is nowadays a co-legislator with legislative tasks, but not all of this power. On the other hand, it has budgetary power and democratic control over the European institutions. The European Parliament elects the President of the European Commission, currently Jean-Claude Juncker. This highlights a difficulty with the sectoral approach in order to have a clear vision of the responsibilities of the various bodies of the European Union.  Council: it consists of one representative at ministerial level from each Member State of the European Union. Each representative and authorized to commit his government. According to the Lisbon Treaty, this Council is chaired by a President elected by the Heads of Member States for a 2-year term of office, currently Donald Tusk. Its function is mainly to carry out the Union's legislative functions in collaboration with the European Parliament. It takes action on the Common Foreign and Security Policy, meeting twice a year.
Jean-Claude Juncker: its function is to be a true executive composed of one Commissioner per Member State; the team of Commissioners is ratified by the European Parliament. Its vocation is to be the executive body, and the Treaty of Lisbon also establishes the position of Commissioner for Foreign Affairs and Security represented by Frederica Mogherini. On the other hand, it prepares draft laws and submits them to the Council and Parliament. To carry out its activity, it is composed of 25,000 civil servants.
*Court of Justice: in order to ensure the uniform and correct application of the legislation, a common court is established, which sits in Luxembourg. It includes the Court of Justice and a Court of First Instance of the European Communities which ensures compliance with the Community's Treaty Law. Judges are appointed by the Council.  
   
   
L’idée première étant de mettre sous contrôle européen la production de charbon et d’acier. C’est une intégration sectorielle dans un domaine particulier qui permet de contourner l’opposition nationaliste.
The primary sources of Community law are the Treaties and then the:
*regulations ;
En avril 1951, la [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_europ%C3%A9enne_du_charbon_et_de_l%27acier Communauté européenne du Charbon et de l’Acier] est mise sur pied entrant en vigueur en 1952. Le traité était signé par l’Allemagne, la France,le Benelux et l’Italie. Elle est dirigée par une haute autorité supranationale dirigée par un collège de hauts fonctionnaires indépendant des gouvernements membres. Le premier président est Jean Monnet.
*directives that oblige Member States to oblige a policy even if it leaves the freedom to choose the means of compliance;
*decisions that are binding measures for recipients who may between the State or individuals;
La haute autorité est chargée de gérer la mise en commun des ressources du charbon et de l’acier. La décision et les recommandations s’imposent aux 6 États membres eux-mêmes représentés par un Conseil Spécial des ministres qui travaille de pair avec la haute autorité de surveillance. Une Assemblée consultative formée des députés des 6 parlements nationaux la complète. Cette armature institutionnelle est d’autre part complétée d’une Cour de Justice.
*recommendations that are instruments for indirect actions in the fields of monetary policy management;
*opinions express the opinion of the community of European Union countries.
Après l’intégration sectorielle, deux initiatives vont voir le jour :
*créer une '''[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_europ%C3%A9enne_de_d%C3%A9fense Communauté Européen de Défense]''' : c’est un échec en raison de l’attitude négative du parlement français qui refuse de ratifier le traité en 1954.
*'''Communauté Politique''' : abouti à la signature à Rome d’un traité en 1957 instituant la [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_%C3%A9conomique_europ%C3%A9enne Communauté Économique européenne] (CEE)appelée aussi « marché commun » entrant en vigueur en 1958 et prévoyant une union douanière ainsi que la mise en œuvre d’une politique agricole commune. Ultérieurement elle va se transformer notamment à la suite du [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_Maastricht traité de Maastricht] faisant de la CEE une Union européenne. D’autres traités le modifieront, dont le dernier datant de 2007 et en vigueur depuis 2009 est le traité de Lisbonne.
Pour réaliser les objectifs communs, notamment celui de créer un marché unique, les États membres ont développé une union douanière et la libre circulation des produits, mais aussi des services et des gens s’instaurant dans un cadre d’harmonisation des politiques économiques et la protection de libre concurrence.
À l’échelon européen, il y a un enchevêtrement de compétences :
*'''[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlement_europ%C3%A9en Parlement européen]''' : composé de membres élus au suffrage universel direct dans les pays membres depuis 1979. Même s’il n’est pas le législateur, il s’impose, de nos jours, comme colégislateur détenant des tâches législatives, mais pas l’ensemble de ce pouvoir.  D’autre part, il dispose d’un pouvoir budgétaire et joue un contrôle démocratique sur les institutions européennes. Le Parlement européen élit le président de la Commission européenne qui est actuellement Jean-Claude Juncker. Ainsi est mise en avant une difficulté de l’approche sectorielle afin d’avoir une vision claire des responsabilités des différents organes de l’Union européenne.
*'''Conseil''' : il est constitué d’un représentant à l’échelon ministériel de chaque État membre de l’Union européenne. Chaque représentant et habilité à engager son gouvernement. Selon le traité de Lisbonne, ce Conseil est présidé par un Président élu par les chefs des États membres pour un mandat de 2 ans qui est actuellement Donald Tusk. Sa fonction est d’assurer principalement les fonctions législatives de l’Union exercées en collaboration avec le Parlement européen. Il prend des mesures concernant la politique étrangère et la sécurité commune se réunissant deux fois par an.
Jean-Claude Juncker : sa fonction est d’être un véritable exécutif composé d’un commissaire par État membre ; l’équipe de commissaire est ratifiée par le Parlement européen. Sa vocation est d’être l’organe exécutif, de plus le traité de Lisbonne institue un poste de commissaire aux affaires étrangères et à la sécurité représenté par Frederica Mogherini. D’autre part, elle élabore des projets de loi et les soumet au Conseil et au Parlement. Pour exercer son activité, elle est composée de 25000 fonctionnaires.
*'''[http://europa.eu/about-eu/institutions-bodies/court-justice/index_fr.htm Cour de Justice]''' : afin de veiller à la bonne application uniforme de la législation, il est établi une juridiction commune qui siège au Luxembourg. Elle comporte la Cour de justice et un tribunal de première instance des communautés européennes qui veillent au respect du droit des traités de la communauté. Les juges sont nommés par le Conseil.
Les sources primaires du droit communautaire sont constituées par les traités puis les :
*règlements ;
*directives qui obligent les États membres à obliger à une politique même si elle laisse la liberté de choix des moyens pour se conformer ;
*décisions qui sont de mesures obligatoires pour les destinataires qui peuvent entre l’État ou des individus ;
*recommandations qui sont des instruments d’actions indirectes dans les domaines de la gestion de la politique monétaire ;
*avis expriment l’opinion de la communauté des pays de l’Union européenne.


= L’association européenne de libre-échange et l’Espace Économique européen =
= The European Free Trade Association and the European Economic Area =


[[Fichier:EFTA logo.png|100px|cadre|droite]]
[[Fichier:EFTA logo.png|100px|cadre|droite]]


Elle a été créée en réaction à la création de la Communauté européenne. Les initiateurs sont le Royaume-Uni, le Danemark, l’Autriche, le Portugal, la Suède, la Norvège et la Suisse.
It was created in response to the creation of the European Community. The initiators are the United Kingdom, Denmark, Austria, Portugal, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland.
 
Elle a été créée le 4 juillet 1960, le but étant de créer une organisation européenne de libre-échange contrant l’influence de la CEE sur les pays européens qui n’y participaient pas. L’objectif était de mettre sur pied une entente commerciale des pays membres à l’opposé de la CEE qui propose l’intégration sectorielle. Vont joindre l’AELEE la Finlande, l’Islande et le Liechtenstein.
It was created on 4 July 1960, the aim being to create a European free trade organisation against the influence of the EEC on European countries that did not participate in it. The objective was to establish a trade agreement between member countries as opposed to the UNECE, which proposes sectoral integration. Finland, Iceland and Liechtenstein will join EFTA.
 
Son conseil à rôle d’organe directeur. Chaque État est représenté par un représentant avec une voix au Conseil. Il se réunit deux fois par an à l’échelon des représentations ministérielles, et deux fois par an à l’échelon des représentants permanents. Son siège est à Genève.  
Its council acts as a governing body. Each State is represented by one representative with one vote in the Council. It meets twice a year at the level of ministerial representations and twice a year at the level of permanent representatives. Its headquarters are in Geneva.
 
Au fil de l’évolution de la Communauté européenne,les pays membres de l’AELEEE vont devoir la quitter pour entrer dans l’Union européenne. En 1984, la CEE est l’AELEEE vont intensifier leurs relations avec comme résultat l’accord de Porto du 2 mai 1992 qui établit l’Espace Économique Européen.
As the European Community evolves, the EFTA countries will have to leave it to join the European Union. In 1984, the EEC and EFTA will intensify their relations with the result of the Porto Agreement of 2 May 1992, which establishes the European Economic Area.
 
Il fut négocié entre les pays de l’AELEEE et de la CEE, conçu comme une préparation à l’intégration.  
It was negotiated between the EFTA and EEC countries as a preparation for integration.
 
La Suisse a refusé cet accord avec un double « non » du Peuple et des Cantons le 6 décembre 1992 tandis que l’Autriche, la Finlande et le Liechtenstein l’ont accepté.  
Switzerland refused this agreement with a double "no" from the People and the Cantons on 6 December 1992, while Austria, Finland and Liechtenstein accepted it.
 
Entre temps, les autres pays ont adhéré à l’Union européenne. Actuellement l’AELE ne compte plus que 4 membres à savoir la Suisse, l’Islande, le Liechtenstein et la Norvège.
In the meantime, the other countries have joined the European Union. At present, EFTA has only 4 members, namely Switzerland, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.
 
Le traité de 1994 se base sur deux socles :
The 1994 Treaty is based on two bases:
*le socle CEE ;
 
*le socle AELEEE.
*the CEE base;
*the AELEEE base.
The European Economic Area now consists of the European Union, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.
 
The European Economic Area consists of a Council with representatives of the Council of the European Union and a member of each member's government. This Joint Committee is responsible for the day-to-day management that involves the implementation of the Porto Agreements. It is composed of ambassadors from the EFTA States and representatives of the European Union.
 
Of course, Switzerland has actively participated in the negotiation of this European Economic Area. In preparing for the entry, which was not made, the Federal Council had established an entry policy by asking Parliament to review the legislation. This unsuccessful project was called EUROLEX, which allowed Switzerland to comply with the European area.
 
On December 6, 1992, the People and the Cantons refused to allow the deployment of this economic space marginalizing Switzerland. Faced with this refusal, the Federal Council and Parliament had to find another solution, the famous bilateral ones.
 
Since this refusal, Switzerland has not been in a favourable position, as it is neither part of the European Union nor of the European Economic Area.
 
Despite this refusal, Switzerland is obliged to follow the main guidelines of the European Union in adapting its legislation to that of Europe. In anticipation of Switzerland's entry into the EEA, the Federal Council had amended Swiss legislation, after the rejection of the agreement a large part of the EUROLEX project was retained, which evolved into the SUISSELEX project to avoid the marginalisation of Swiss legislation in relation to European legislation.


Maintenant, l’Espace Économique européen est formé de l’Union européenne, de la Norvège, de l’Islande et du Liechtenstein.
As a result, Switzerland will be obliged to negotiate with the European Union leading to the bilateral agreements I concluded between the European Union and the Swiss Confederation. These are agreements signed in 1999 in Luxembourg and approved on 21 May 2000 by 67% of the Swiss people. These agreements were in the form of an order subject to an optional referendum.
L’Espace Économique européen se compose d’un conseil avec des représentants du conseil de l’Union européenne et d’un membre du gouvernement de chaque membre. Ce comité mixte est responsable de la gestion courante qui implique la mise en application des accords de Porto. Il est formé d’ambassadeurs des États de l’ALEEE et de représentants de l’Union européenne.
Évidemment, la Suisse a participé activement à la négociation de cet espace économique européen. Dans la préparation de l’entrée, qui ne fut pas faite, le Conseil Fédéral avait établi une politique d’entrée en demandant au Parlement de revoir la législation.  Ce projet qui n’a pas abouti s’appelait EUROLEX permettant à la Suisse d’être en conformité avec l’espace européen.
Le 6 décembre 1992, le Peuple et les Cantons refusent le déploiement de cet espace économique marginalisant la Suisse. Face à ce refus, le Conseil Fédéral et le Parlement ont dû trouver une autre solution, ce sont les fameuses bilatérales.
Depuis ce refus, la Suisse n’est pas dans une position favorable, car elle fait ni partie de l’Union européenne ni de l’Espace Économique Européen.
Malgré ce refus, la Suisse est obligée de suivre les grandes orientations de l’Union européenne adaptant sa législation à celle de l’Europe.  En prévision de l’entrée de la Suisse dans l’EEE le Conseil fédéral avait modifié la législation suisse, après le rejet de l’accord une bonne partie du projet EUROLEX fut gardée.Ce projet a évolué devenant le projet SUISSELEX pour éviter la marginalisation de la législation suisse par rapport à la législation européenne.
Dès lors, la Suisse va être obligée de négocier avec l’Union européenne aboutissant aux accords bilatéraux I conclus entre l’Union européenne et la Confédération suisse. Ce sont des accords signé en 1999 au Luxembourg et approuvé le 21 mai 2000 par 67% du peuple suisse. Ces accords étaient sous forme d’arrêté soumis au référendum facultatif.  
   
   
Au fond, ces accords bilatéraux contentaient tout le monde, entrant en vigueur en  juin 2002. Ce sont des accords sectoriels touchant un ensemble de secteurs :  
Basically, these bilateral agreements satisfied everyone, coming into force in June 2002. These are sectoral agreements covering a range of sectors:  
*les transports terrestres ;
*land transport;
*les transports aériens ;
*air transport;
*la libre circulation des personnes ;
*the free movement of persons;
*la recherche ;
*research;
*l’agriculture ;
*agriculture;
*les marchés publics ;
*public procurement;
*et vise à éliminer les obstacles techniques au commerce dans le domaine de la concurrence.
*and aims to eliminate technical barriers to trade in the field of competition.
   
   
La Suisse va conclure les accords bilatéraux II constituant la participation de la Suisse aux accords de Schengen et de Dublin. Ils ont été acceptés par le peuple à 55% de « oui » en 2005. Ils permettent de renforcer sa coopération avec l’Union européenne dans les domaines de :
Switzerland will conclude bilateral agreements II constituting Switzerland's participation in the Schengen and Dublin agreements. They were accepted by the people at 55% of "yes" in 2005. They make it possible to strengthen its cooperation with the European Union in the areas of:
*la police ;
*the police;
*la justice ;
*justice;
*des visas ;
*visas;
*de l’asile.
*of the asylum.


Cela permet d’éviter que les frontières de la Suisse soient bouchées par des contrôles systématiques sur les ressortissants suisses.
This prevents Switzerland's borders from being blocked by systematic controls on Swiss nationals.


= Annexes =
= Annexes =

Version du 26 juin 2019 à 19:57


To understand how Europe has developed today, we must look at the consequences of the Second World War.

Languages

The Council of Europe

Europe emerged bloodless from the Second World War. The discovery of concentration camps is a horror that upsets the whole of Europe, but also the world.

Two superpowers will emerge in opposition: the United States and the USSR. An antagonistic ideological opposition marked by a different socio-economic ideology. Europe is divided by an "iron curtain" which is symbolized by the Berlin Wall.

Representatives of the resistance movements, namely France, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Germany, met in secret in Geneva in 1944. The objective is to consider not only the reconstruction of Europe, but also the possibility of uniting it. In particular through the Graduate Institute of International Studies, which brings together Europe subjugated by Nazism, political refugees and embodies a liberal space.

In 1946, Churchill launched his appeal from Zurich. This evolved idea was taken up by the first major post-war European political congress held in Montreux in 1947.

From 8 to 10 May 1948, the Hague Congress was held: it brought together about a thousand people from 19 European countries, deeply divided between unionists, supporters of intergovernmental cooperation, and federalists in favour of transferring sovereignty to the European structure that was to be created. A political resolution will be adopted calling for:

  • a European assembly which will be the Council of Europe;
  • a human rights charter, namely the 1953 European Convention on Human Rights;
  • a Supreme Court which will be the European Court of Human Rights.

From this congress was born the European movement whose action would later lead to the creation of the Council of Europe. This proposal will be taken up by the French Foreign Ministers, Robert Schuman and the Belgian Spaak. The objective is to create the equivalent of a European constituency bringing together an assembly of delegates from national parliaments in order to prepare for the transfer of part of the sovereignty of Member States to a European identity.

The Council of Europe was established on 5 May 1949 by a convention signed in London by ten countries (France, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom) and its headquarters was designated in Strasbourg as a symbol of reconciliation between Germany and France.

It is an organisation that now includes almost all the countries of the European continent, with the exception of Belarus and Kosovo. It develops intergovernmental cooperation activities, particularly in the fields of culture, social, health, education and the environment.

The organs of the Council of Europe are:

  • Consultative and Parliamentary Assembly: a deliberative body composed of representatives of the national parliaments of the Member States. Switzerland is entitled to 6 seats (4 national councillors + 2 state councillors).
  • Council of Ministers: intergovernmental body competent to act on behalf of the Council of Europe.
  • Secretariat: composed of the Secretary General elected by the Parliamentary Assembly on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers.

Its role has been considerable in spreading democratic values and respect for human rights on the European continent.

Its main task is to draw up European conventions and agreements. In 1950, the member countries of the Council of Europe signed the European Convention on Human Rights, which entered into force in 1953.

This European Convention on Human Rights is a real revolution in international relations. From now on, there is an international mechanism of precise controls and sanctions providing 4 essential innovations:

  • it recognizes that an individual has rights to which the reason of State must bow;
  • created a court to guarantee the principles it affirms: creation of the European Court of Human Rights;
  • establishes a genuine legal obligation for States;
  • allows an individual to file a complaint against a country responsible for a violation of the rights listed in this Convention.

The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment and Punishment

Since the end of the Second World War, there have been an inordinate number of international texts prohibiting and condemning torture.

This convention states that no one may be subjected to torture or inhuman and degrading treatment. However, most laws do not impose a control mechanism to impose penalties. On the other hand, the control is carried out after the fact. In these circumstances, increasing attention has been paid to preventive methods to address the roots of the phenomenon of torture.

The origins of this agreement date back to a proposal made by a Geneva banker, Jean-Jacques Gautier [1912 - 1988]. He considered that as a banker, he had responsibilities to society.

It proposes the development of a system of visits to all places of detention in order to ensure control and to be able to combat torture not ex post, but ex ante.

Its proposal first materialized at the United Nations level in the form of a protocol. The text is prepared by a committee and a Swiss commission of lawyers. It was officially submitted by Costa Rica to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in March 1980. However, it was blocked, leading to a mobilisation at European level to implement Jean-Jacques Gautier's idea. Subsequently, the Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation on torture, including in an annex the draft convention drawn up by Jean-Jacques Gautier, his committee and the International Committee of Jurists.

After four years of discussions, the project was completed on 26 November 1987, ratified in 1988 and entered into force on 1 February 1989. As a result, the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture was created with the aim of preventing torture.

This protection is provided by a committee of experts chosen for their integrity and independence, they are entitled to visit the places where arrested persons are staying (prison, police station, psychiatric establishment, etc.). After each visit, the Committee shall submit a report to the State concerned containing recommendations aimed at better protecting the rights of persons deprived of their liberty. If the State refuses to take the recommendations into account, the report can be made public: the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on public opinion to denounce the conditions of detention of prisoners of war. However, this only applies to States that have signed the Convention.

The European Union

Jean Monnet (left) with Konrad Adenauer in 1953.

Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was an economist born in Cognac who held various positions in the French government and the League of Nations before the war. After the war, General de Gaulle called on him to appoint him as commissioner of the plan in order to carry out an industrialization program.

The federalist approach advocated by the supporters of European confederalism aims to address the issue of state sovereignty. It would not overcome this obstacle and would limit intergovernmental cooperation.

It is to avoid this type of interference with sovereignty that he will propose to Foreign Ministers Robert Schuman a sectoral approach to the construction of Europe: the idea was to place certain key sectors of economic life under European supranational authority. It was not a question of confronting nationalisms, but of injecting into European life an integrating virus that could bring together European States in certain key sectors. It will make it possible to create de facto solidarity in key sectors.

The first idea is to bring coal and steel production under European control. It is a sectoral integration in a particular field that makes it possible to bypass the nationalist opposition.

In April 1951, the European Coal and Steel Community was established, which came into force in 1952. The treaty was signed by Germany, France, Benelux and Italy. It is headed by a supranational high authority headed by a college of senior officials independent of member governments. The first president is Jean Monnet.

The High Authority is responsible for managing the pooling of coal and steel resources. The decision and recommendations are binding on the 6 Member States themselves, which are represented by a Special Council of Ministers that works in conjunction with the High Authority. A Consultative Assembly composed of members of the 6 national parliaments completes it. This institutional framework is also supplemented by a Court of Justice.

After sectoral integration, two initiatives will be launched:

  • create a European Defence Community: this is a failure due to the negative attitude of the French Parliament, which refuses to ratify the Treaty in 1954.
  • Political Community: led to the signing in Rome in 1957 of a treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the "common market", which entered into force in 1958 and provides for a customs union and the implementation of a common agricultural policy. Later on, it will be transformed, in particular following the Maastricht Treaty, making the EEC a European Union. Other treaties will amend it, the most recent of which dates from 2007 and has been in force since 2009 is the Treaty of Lisbon.

To achieve the common objectives, in particular that of creating a single market, the Member States have developed a customs union and the free movement of products, but also services and people within a framework of harmonising economic policies and protecting free competition.

At European level, there is a tangle of competences:

  • European Parliament: composed of members elected by direct universal suffrage in the Member States since 1979. Even if he is not the legislator, he is nowadays a co-legislator with legislative tasks, but not all of this power. On the other hand, it has budgetary power and democratic control over the European institutions. The European Parliament elects the President of the European Commission, currently Jean-Claude Juncker. This highlights a difficulty with the sectoral approach in order to have a clear vision of the responsibilities of the various bodies of the European Union. Council: it consists of one representative at ministerial level from each Member State of the European Union. Each representative and authorized to commit his government. According to the Lisbon Treaty, this Council is chaired by a President elected by the Heads of Member States for a 2-year term of office, currently Donald Tusk. Its function is mainly to carry out the Union's legislative functions in collaboration with the European Parliament. It takes action on the Common Foreign and Security Policy, meeting twice a year.

Jean-Claude Juncker: its function is to be a true executive composed of one Commissioner per Member State; the team of Commissioners is ratified by the European Parliament. Its vocation is to be the executive body, and the Treaty of Lisbon also establishes the position of Commissioner for Foreign Affairs and Security represented by Frederica Mogherini. On the other hand, it prepares draft laws and submits them to the Council and Parliament. To carry out its activity, it is composed of 25,000 civil servants.

  • Court of Justice: in order to ensure the uniform and correct application of the legislation, a common court is established, which sits in Luxembourg. It includes the Court of Justice and a Court of First Instance of the European Communities which ensures compliance with the Community's Treaty Law. Judges are appointed by the Council.

The primary sources of Community law are the Treaties and then the:

  • regulations ;
  • directives that oblige Member States to oblige a policy even if it leaves the freedom to choose the means of compliance;
  • decisions that are binding measures for recipients who may between the State or individuals;
  • recommendations that are instruments for indirect actions in the fields of monetary policy management;
  • opinions express the opinion of the community of European Union countries.

The European Free Trade Association and the European Economic Area

EFTA logo.png

It was created in response to the creation of the European Community. The initiators are the United Kingdom, Denmark, Austria, Portugal, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland.

It was created on 4 July 1960, the aim being to create a European free trade organisation against the influence of the EEC on European countries that did not participate in it. The objective was to establish a trade agreement between member countries as opposed to the UNECE, which proposes sectoral integration. Finland, Iceland and Liechtenstein will join EFTA.

Its council acts as a governing body. Each State is represented by one representative with one vote in the Council. It meets twice a year at the level of ministerial representations and twice a year at the level of permanent representatives. Its headquarters are in Geneva.

As the European Community evolves, the EFTA countries will have to leave it to join the European Union. In 1984, the EEC and EFTA will intensify their relations with the result of the Porto Agreement of 2 May 1992, which establishes the European Economic Area.

It was negotiated between the EFTA and EEC countries as a preparation for integration.

Switzerland refused this agreement with a double "no" from the People and the Cantons on 6 December 1992, while Austria, Finland and Liechtenstein accepted it.

In the meantime, the other countries have joined the European Union. At present, EFTA has only 4 members, namely Switzerland, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.

The 1994 Treaty is based on two bases:

  • the CEE base;
  • the AELEEE base.

The European Economic Area now consists of the European Union, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.

The European Economic Area consists of a Council with representatives of the Council of the European Union and a member of each member's government. This Joint Committee is responsible for the day-to-day management that involves the implementation of the Porto Agreements. It is composed of ambassadors from the EFTA States and representatives of the European Union.

Of course, Switzerland has actively participated in the negotiation of this European Economic Area. In preparing for the entry, which was not made, the Federal Council had established an entry policy by asking Parliament to review the legislation. This unsuccessful project was called EUROLEX, which allowed Switzerland to comply with the European area.

On December 6, 1992, the People and the Cantons refused to allow the deployment of this economic space marginalizing Switzerland. Faced with this refusal, the Federal Council and Parliament had to find another solution, the famous bilateral ones.

Since this refusal, Switzerland has not been in a favourable position, as it is neither part of the European Union nor of the European Economic Area.

Despite this refusal, Switzerland is obliged to follow the main guidelines of the European Union in adapting its legislation to that of Europe. In anticipation of Switzerland's entry into the EEA, the Federal Council had amended Swiss legislation, after the rejection of the agreement a large part of the EUROLEX project was retained, which evolved into the SUISSELEX project to avoid the marginalisation of Swiss legislation in relation to European legislation.

As a result, Switzerland will be obliged to negotiate with the European Union leading to the bilateral agreements I concluded between the European Union and the Swiss Confederation. These are agreements signed in 1999 in Luxembourg and approved on 21 May 2000 by 67% of the Swiss people. These agreements were in the form of an order subject to an optional referendum.

Basically, these bilateral agreements satisfied everyone, coming into force in June 2002. These are sectoral agreements covering a range of sectors:

  • land transport;
  • air transport;
  • the free movement of persons;
  • research;
  • agriculture;
  • public procurement;
  • and aims to eliminate technical barriers to trade in the field of competition.

Switzerland will conclude bilateral agreements II constituting Switzerland's participation in the Schengen and Dublin agreements. They were accepted by the people at 55% of "yes" in 2005. They make it possible to strengthen its cooperation with the European Union in the areas of:

  • the police;
  • justice;
  • visas;
  • of the asylum.

This prevents Switzerland's borders from being blocked by systematic controls on Swiss nationals.

Annexes

References