Europe at the centre of the world: from the end of the 19th century to 1918

De Baripedia


The period from the end of the 19th century to the end of the First World War in 1918 saw Europe take a central place in the world. This period was characterised by significant economic, political, social and cultural changes that had a major impact on world history. Europe at the end of the 19th century was dominated by the great colonial powers, notably Britain, France, Germany and Italy, which had extended their influence throughout the world. Competition for control of colonies and markets led to an arms race and tensions between the European powers.

It can be seen that Europe played a central role in international relations until the end of the First World War in 1918. This was due to a combination of factors such as Europe's economic and colonial dominance of the world, the rivalry between the major European powers and their influence on world political events. However, the First World War led to a significant decline in Europe's influence in world affairs. The war led to the destruction of Europe's economy and infrastructure, resulting in a loss of economic and political power. Moreover, the war also led to major changes in the world order, with the emergence of new powers such as the United States and the Soviet Union.

Furthermore, the consequences of the First World War also led to the rise of nationalist movements and authoritarian regimes in Europe, which had a negative impact on the political stability of the region. The rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s eventually led to the Second World War and a new period of decline for Europe. Thus, although Europe dominated international relations until the end of the First World War, the war brought about a radical change in the world order and marked the beginning of a decline in Europe's influence on the international stage.

The European system and European order

The European system, established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, based its dominance on the great powers of the time, notably France, Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia. This system aimed to reorganise Europe following the Napoleonic wars, restoring a form of balance between the great powers. During the 19th century, this system was marked by the coexistence of old nation-states such as France and Britain, as well as the emergence of new nation-states such as Italy and Germany. In addition, empires such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire also coexisted with these nation-states. This coexistence was often unstable, as the great powers sought to expand their influence and territory at the expense of others, creating diplomatic and military tensions. Rivalries between the great powers also led to military alliances, which eventually led to the First World War.

From the late 19th century until the end of the First World War in 1918, Europe was considered the centre of the world. This period is marked by major social, economic and political changes, which influenced the European order and the international system. The European system of this period was characterised by intense competition between European powers for control of colonies, markets and natural resources. The major European powers, such as Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia, engaged in alliances and agreements to defend their interests and protect their position in the international system. The European order of this period was influenced by several major events, such as the Franco-German War of 1870-1871 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. The creation of the German Empire in 1871 and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine contributed to rising tensions between the European powers, which led to the formation of alliances and the arms race. Significant changes also marked the international system in this period. The rise of the United States and Japan as economic and military powers created a new dynamic in international relations. The First World War, which broke out in 1914, eventually led to the end of the European order and the transformation of the international system.

Britain was considered the world's leading industrial power in the 19th century, with developed textile, steel and mining industries. The Industrial Revolution had a major impact on Britain becoming the world's leading industrial power in the 19th century. It enabled Britain to develop textile, steel and mining industries, providing jobs for millions of workers. The Industrial Revolution also contributed to Britain's territorial expansion, strengthening its control over its colonial empire. It used its economic power to extend its diplomatic and political influence, and developed a powerful navy to protect its economic interests and colonies around the world. However, the Industrial Revolution also brought about a major social transformation in Britain, with massive urbanisation, population growth and the emergence of new social classes. It contributed to improved living conditions for some sections of the population, while exacerbating social and economic inequalities.

The Industrial Revolution also had an impact on the great Asian empires such as China and India, which began to lose their economic and political dominance over the world. This led to a shift in the balance of power between Europe and Asia, which benefited Europe. However, despite Europe's dominance at the beginning of the 20th century, this eventually came to an end with the end of the First World War in 1918. Several factors contributed to this end of Europe. Firstly, the First World War depleted the great European powers' resources, weakening their influence on the world. In addition, the war resulted in the loss of lives and triggered social and political movements in European countries that challenged the established order. The rise of the United States, Russia and Japan as economic and military powers also contributed to the weakening of Europe. Europe also faced internal challenges such as the emergence of nationalist movements and tensions between the major European powers. Finally, the end of Europe was accelerated by the social and political upheavals that followed the war, such as the rise of communism, independence movements in the colonies and the emergence of new political ideologies such as fascism and Nazism. In sum, Europe's dominance in the early 20th century came to an end due to several factors, including the First World War, the emergence of new economic and military powers, internal challenges and the social and political upheaval that followed the war.

The Concept of the State System

Since the mid-17th century, states have been considered the frame of reference in international relations. This view was formalised by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which marked the end of the Thirty Years' War in Europe. This treaty established the principle of state sovereignty and put an end to the medieval idea of a universal empire. Indeed, throughout the Middle Ages, the idea of a universal empire had been in the air as a desire to recreate the Roman Empire.

With the Treaty of Westphalia, state sovereignty was recognised as a fundamental principle of international relations. This meant that each state was free to make its own political decisions and that other states had no right to interfere in its internal affairs. This idea of national sovereignty also paved the way for the formation of an international system based on the principle of the balance of power, which prevailed until the end of the 19th century.

The Treaty of Westphalia also marked the end of the power of the Holy Roman Empire, which had dominated Central Europe for centuries. This empire had collapsed during the Thirty Years' War, leaving a political vacuum in Central Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia recognised the independence of the German states, which began to organise themselves into their own political system, marking the birth of the nation-state system in Europe. This new system was based on the idea of state sovereignty and the balance of power. European states were now organised in a series of bilateral and multilateral relationships, based on common interests and diplomatic alliances. This helped to maintain a certain balance of power in Europe, thus avoiding major conflicts between the great powers. This system of nation states lasted until the end of the 19th century, but began to be challenged at the beginning of the 20th century. The arms race, imperial rivalries and nationalist tensions eventually led to the First World War, which marked the end of the nation-state system and the beginning of a new international system.

The main principles of international relations that emerged after the Treaty of Westphalia are:

  • The first principle, the balance of power, aimed to maintain a balanced distribution of power in Europe in order to prevent one power from dominating the others. This involved the formation of alliances and coalitions between states to maintain this balance and prevent major conflict.
  • The second principle, non-interference in the internal affairs of another state, is a logical consequence of the idea of state sovereignty. Each state was free to regulate its own affairs without the intervention of other states, except in the case of a threat to collective security.
  • Finally, the principle of "Cujus regio, ejus religio" meant that the religion of the prince should be that of his people, but it also implied the right of every individual to practice his religion freely. This principle was developed to put an end to the religious wars that had torn Europe apart for centuries. The principle of "Cujus regio, ejus religio" marked the end of the political role of the Church in state affairs. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church was a major power in Europe, exercising considerable influence on political and social affairs. The assertion of the principle of sovereignty of the nation-state put an end to this situation by affirming that political leaders should have the responsibility to decide on the religion of their people. With the birth of nation-states, political boundaries began to be reinforced, leading to a new organisation of power in Europe. Nation-states emerged as autonomous and sovereign political entities with their own political, economic and military systems. Religion, although still important to many Europeans, lost much of its political influence, giving way to political ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism or socialism.

These principles formed the basis of the European system for almost two centuries, but they were tested several times during this period. The Napoleonic Wars and the First World War both shook the balance of power in Europe, while nationalist movements and territorial claims often undermined the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states. It is therefore the affirmation of the nation-state.

The international system that emerged after the Treaty of Westphalia was characterised by the absence of a central authority superior to that of the states. Each state was sovereign and independent, and international peace and security were ensured by the balance of power and diplomatic negotiation.

However, this relative anarchy was tested during the 19th century with the emergence of new powers and the rise of inter-state rivalries. The Napoleonic Wars disrupted the European order and led to the reorganisation of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The great European powers established a balance of power to maintain peace, but this relative stability was threatened by the arms race, colonial tensions and national rivalries.

Competition between states to extend their power has been a constant in international relations since the birth of the state system. However, this competition took on a new dimension from the end of the 19th century with the emergence of new powers such as Germany and the United States, which sought to challenge the balance of power established by the great European powers. This competition also spread across the globe with the race for colonisation and imperial expansion. This quest for power eventually led to the First World War, which saw the great European powers fighting each other in an all-out war that led to the collapse of the European order. This eventually led to the First World War in 1914, which ended the balance of power and stability in Europe. After the war, a new international order was established with the creation of the League of Nations, which sought to maintain international peace and security through cooperation and diplomacy. However, this system was also tested by the rise of Nazism in Germany and rivalries between the great powers, leading to the Second World War and the creation of the United Nations in 1945.

Although the First World War disrupted the European system, nation states remain the main actors in international relations to this day. However, their role has changed over time. In the 20th century, with the emergence of new challenges such as globalisation, terrorism and climate change, states had to adapt and intervene in new areas such as health, education and the environment. Thus, although the European system has disappeared, states remain key players in international relations, while expanding their scope of action beyond political and military issues.

Nation-States vs. Empire-States

Nation states and empire states have different characteristics. Nation states are sovereign states that are defined by their common territory, language, culture and history. They are often composed of a single ethnic or linguistic group, and their government is elected by the population. Examples of nation states are France, Germany and Japan. Empire states, on the other hand, are states that are composed of several different ethnic or linguistic groups, and their territory can often span several continents. Examples of empire states are Russia and the Ottoman Empire. These states are often governed by an elite that is perceived as foreign or colonial by the indigenous populations.

Nation states and empire states have different histories in Europe. Nation-states emerged in Europe in the nineteenth century, with the idea that each ethnic or linguistic group should have its own independent state. This led to the emergence of new states such as Germany and Italy, and to the redrawing of the borders of many existing states. Empire states, on the other hand, have been a feature of Europe since the Middle Ages, with examples such as the Germanic Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire. These states have often been characterised by conflicts between different ethnic and religious groups, as well as tensions between the centres of power and the peripheries.

Despite their differences, both nation states and empire states have played an important role in European history. Nation states have often been associated with democracy and national liberation, while empire states have often been associated with imperialism and foreign domination.

Traditional Nation-States

The United Kingdom was one of the great European powers of the 19th century due to its privileged position as the leading maritime and trading power. It was also one of the main players in the European system of the time, seeking to maintain a balance of power between the various European powers to avoid conflict. The United Kingdom was also endowed with a powerful industry, based on the industrial revolution that began in its territory, allowing it to dominate international trade and become the world's leading financial power. Its colonial empire was also very large, providing it with significant economic resources and global power status. However, despite its dominant position, the UK also faced internal and external challenges, including the Irish question and growing competition with other European powers such as Germany.

Austria was a continental empire that played an important role in the defeat of Napoleon. It was ruled by Emperor Franz I, who was also King of Hungary and Bohemia. At the end of the 18th century, Austria was a major power in Europe and its capital, Vienna, was an important cultural centre. At the Congress of Vienna, Metternich, the Austrian Foreign Minister, played a decisive role in the reorganisation of Europe. He was in favour of a balance of power between the great European powers in order to avoid domination by one state over the others. He also wanted to restore the old monarchical regimes and crush any revolutionary tendencies. Thus the Congress of Vienna redrawn the map of Europe by re-establishing the monarchies deposed by Napoleon and creating new nation states such as Belgium and Norway. Despite this, Austria was to experience difficulties during the 19th century, particularly with the nationalist movements that emerged in the various territories of the Empire, which was composed of many different ethnic groups. This internal instability weakened Austria and contributed to its defeat in the First World War.

Prussia was the third major player in the coalition against Napoleon. Between 1815 and 1879, Prussia tried to unite under its rule the German-speaking regions that had resulted from the break-up of the Holy Roman Empire. This was the period of the formation of Germany as a nation state, with the creation of the German Empire in 1871 under the leadership of Prussia and its chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The German Empire became the leading economic power in Europe with its booming industry and developed railway network. However, the unification of Germany took place against a backdrop of tensions with other European powers, particularly France, which lost Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-German war of 1870-1871. This situation contributed to the rise in tensions in Europe that led to the First World War in 1914.

After the fall of Napoleon, France renounced any hegemonic ambitions in Europe, but continued to expand its colonial empire. However, it retained an important cultural influence in Europe, particularly in the arts and literature. During the 19th century, France also experienced a period of modernisation and economic prosperity, with the development of industry and railways. However, the defeat by Prussia in 1870 and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine marked a turning point in France's history and weakened its influence in Europe.

Recently Affirmed Nation-States

Germany asserted itself by relying on nationalism. German unity was achieved under the aegis of Prussia in January 1871. On the other hand, this unity will be achieved by the war against Austria in particular, in 1866, and against France in 1870. These conflicts were to unify the nation internally by mobilising against external enemies. Austria wanted to create Germany itself by integrating all German-speaking peoples into its empire, being opposed to the Prussian idea of a German Empire independent of Austria. Germany is an incomplete nation-state, since it does not include Austria, where German-speaking peoples live.

Italy is fragmented until 1861. National unity was achieved through war against the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which included Italian-speaking populations. Italian unity was incomplete: Trentino and Istria, which constituted the Irredent Lands, were regions that were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy considered it incomplete and tried to recover Trentino and Istria during the First World War. France supported Italy and was ceded Savoy by the latter. Within these exchanges, popular wills play little role.

The Structure and Role of Empire States

Europe at the time was made up of many multinational empires, which brought together populations of different languages, cultures and religions. The Russian Empire was the largest of these empires, with a great diversity of ethnic and religious groups. The Ottoman Empire included Turkish, Arab, Kurdish, Armenian, Greek, Bulgarian, Romanian and other ethnic groups. Austria-Hungary was composed of many ethnic groups, including Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenians, Croats, Slovenes and Romanians. These multinational empires all experienced internal tensions due to the diversity of populations within them.

The dynastic and monarchical system was re-established in Europe after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, in order to preserve stability and counter French hegemonic ambitions. The post-Napoleon European order was based on the restoration of monarchies and dynasties, in opposition to revolutionary and nationalist ideals. The great European powers sought to preserve the balance of power by avoiding conflict, and to this end they sought to maintain the existing multinational empires and to curb the national aspirations of the peoples within them. However, this policy of repressing nationalities also contributed to the resentments and tensions that led to the upheavals of 19th century Europe. However, this system was undermined by the rise of nationalism, which questioned the legitimacy of multinational empires such as Russia, Austria-Hungary or the Ottoman Empire, which were based on the political and cultural domination of one group over others. Nationalist movements sought to assert the national identity of each people and to claim their right to self-determination, i.e. the right to choose their own political destiny and to form an independent nation state. This demand was one of the main causes of the First World War.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was one of the main pillars of the European order that emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815. However, this multicultural and multilingual empire faced many internal challenges, such as the nationalist demands of the different peoples within it, as well as tensions between the different provinces and regions; this eventually led to its break-up in 1918-1919. The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Prussia for the regrouping of the German populations contributed to the weakening of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the defeat of Prussia in 1866, Austria had to abandon its hegemonic ambitions in Germany and was forced to recognise Prussia's superiority. This defeat undermined the credibility of the Austrian monarchy and increased the demands for independence of the different national groups within it.

The tensions between the different national communities in the Austro-Hungarian Empire also contributed to its weakening. The demands for independence of the various nationalities, particularly the Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes and Poles, created internal divisions within the empire. This situation was exacerbated by the opposition between the Austrians and the Hungarians, who obtained the Austro-Hungarian compromise of 1867, granting Hungary some autonomy within the empire. These problems escalated during the 19th century, and the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire eventually led to the collapse of the European order. The First World War, triggered largely by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was the trigger for this disintegration. After the war, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled, leading to the creation of new nation states such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a rival to Germany and thus to Prussia for a regrouping of the German populations. The defeat of 1866 against Prussia sounded the death knell of this dream, the Austrian monarchy was weakened, the internal populations progressively demanded their autonomy, which culminated in the break-up of the empire in 1919. After Austria's defeat by Prussia in 1866, the Austrian Empire was often referred to, which also included Hungary as part of the Empire. However, after the defeat, Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph was forced to negotiate a compromise with the Hungarian leadership to keep the empire together. The compromise of 1867 thus created the Austro-Hungarian Empire, where Hungary had greater political autonomy and created a duality in the Empire. From this point on, the Empire is often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, reflecting the increased participation of Hungarians in the government of the Empire. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 led to the transformation of the Austrian Empire into a two-headed empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in which the Hungarians were given a large measure of autonomy. This duality and opposition between Austrians and Hungarians created internal tensions that weakened the empire. In addition, the rise of nationalism in the Balkans, particularly among the Slavs, created territorial and independence claims that undermined the cohesion of the empire. This situation contributed to the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after the First World War.

The Russian Empire was a multinational empire comprising populations such as Russians, Ukrainians, Belorussians, Caucasians, Central Asians, Poles, Balts, Finns, among others. Russia experienced several nationalist uprisings and internal revolutions, notably in 1905 and 1917, which weakened Tsarist power and contributed to the collapse of the empire in 1918. National liberation movements were also an important factor in the disintegration of the Russian Empire.

The Ottoman Empire, the "sick old man of Europe", came under a lot of pressure from the European Great Powers during the 19th century, especially because of the Eastern Question, i.e. the question of who would take control of the Ottoman Empire's territories in the Balkans and the Middle East. The great powers competed for hegemony over the region, each seeking to extend their political and economic influence. Russia was interested in dismantling the Ottoman Empire to extend its influence into the Balkans, the Black Sea and the Straits. However, the other major European powers were also involved in political and economic rivalries for the wealth and territories of the Ottoman Empire. Britain, for example, was interested in the trade routes to India and Asia, while France sought to protect its interests in the Mediterranean region. These rivalries contributed to the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire from the 19th century onwards, leading to wars, diplomatic crises and international treaties that undermined the Ottoman Empire's sovereignty. In addition, the rise of nationalism among Arab and Balkan populations also undermined the authority of the Ottoman Empire, as these populations increasingly sought independence and the formation of separate national states. All this eventually led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War. Some European powers were against the break-up of the Ottoman Empire because they feared the instability and conflict that might ensue. In particular, the UK had an interest in maintaining the Ottoman Empire as a buffer between the British possessions in India and Russian ambitions in the region. However, as the situation of the Ottoman Empire deteriorated over time, the European powers eventually participated in its dismemberment, particularly after the First World War. This was particularly the case for the United Kingdom which, after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, began to become more involved in the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. The canal was an important sea route linking Europe and Asia, and control of this route was strategic for trade and imperial rule. The UK supported Greece in its war of independence against the Ottoman Empire in 1821, and occupied Egypt in 1882 before becoming involved in the First World War alongside the Allies against the Central Empires, of which the Ottoman Empire was a part.

The European Balance of Power

The Congress of Vienna by Jean Godefroy.

European equilibrium was a central concept in 19th century international relations. It was a system of peacekeeping that aimed to preserve political stability in Europe by preventing any one power from dominating the others. The major powers had to undertake not to seek to extend their territory to the detriment of others and to resolve their differences peacefully. This system was put in place after the Napoleonic Wars and was maintained until the First World War, although it was put to the test by the rivalries and conflicts between the great European powers.

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 aimed to restore European balance by limiting the influence of France and reorganising the continent after the Napoleonic Wars. The great European powers came together to redefine borders and alliances, and established the principle of the importance of maintaining a balance of power in Europe to prevent one power dominating the others. Great Britain, with its maritime and commercial empire, was seen as a key element in this balance.

Diplomatic Congresses and Conferences were a way for the great European powers to maintain a certain balance and settle international disputes throughout the 19th century.

  • The 1856 Congress of Paris was organised at the end of the Crimean War, which pitted Russia against a coalition formed by France, Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The conflict was over control of the straits that gave Russia access to the warm seas. The European powers feared that Russia would become too powerful and threaten their equilibrium. The aim of the Congress of Paris was to resolve the problems posed by the war and restore peace. The negotiations culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which put an end to the Crimean War. Russia was forced to give up its claims to the straits and to Moldavia and Wallachia (now Romania). The treaty also established guarantees for the protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire and recognised the neutrality of the Black Sea.
  • The Congress of Berlin of 1878 was convened by the major European powers to resolve the problems arising from the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 and to revise the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, which had been imposed by Russia on the Ottoman Empire. The Congress was chaired by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and the European powers decided to redraw the borders of the Balkans, granting greater autonomy to certain Balkan states, notably Serbia and Romania, while strengthening the influence of Austria-Hungary in the region. The Congress of Berlin also recognised the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, while imposing limitations on the sovereignty of the newly created Bulgaria.
  • The 1906 Congress of Algeciras aimed to settle a colonial dispute between France and Germany over Morocco, which was then an independent state but also the object of covetousness on the part of the major European powers. Germany was seeking to challenge France's influence over Morocco, which had led to a diplomatic crisis between the two countries. The congress was held in Algeciras, Spain, and brought together the major European powers as well as the United States. In the end, it was decided to let France manage Morocco's affairs, while guaranteeing the rights of other European nations in the country. However, this decision also reinforced the animosity between France and Germany, which contributed to the escalation of tensions in Europe before the First World War.

The European balance was upset at the beginning of the 20th century. Several factors contributed to this situation, such as the rise of nationalism and territorial claims, the arms race and the increase in tensions between the great powers. Rivalries between Germany, France and Great Britain, in particular, became increasingly pronounced, helping to weaken the balance that had been established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

The Emergence of the New Global Powers

From the end of the 19th century, new powers emerged outside Europe, upsetting the balance of power. The United States, after its victory in the Spanish-American War in 1898, asserted its influence over the Caribbean and Latin America. Japan, for its part, established itself as the main Asian power after its victory over Russia in 1905. These new powers challenged European domination of the world and contributed to the rising international tensions that led to the First World War.

The United States, originally a neutral country limited by its thirteen colonies to the Atlantic seaboard, developed rapidly from the end of the 19th century. In the space of 50 years, it extended over 9.5 million km2 , a territory rich in natural resources, and populated extremely quickly thanks to massive immigration, increasing from 50 to 100 million inhabitants at the beginning of the 20th century. This exponential economic and demographic growth was to make the United States a major world power.

From the beginning of the 20th century, the United States became the world's leading industrial power. In 1900, American industrial production accounted for 23% of world production, while that of Great Britain, the leading industrial power in the 19th century, only accounted for 14%. The United States experienced strong economic growth thanks to the exploitation of its natural resources (coal, oil, iron, copper, etc.), its abundant and inexpensive labour force, and its technological and organisational innovations. This growth is also reflected in their political influence and their role on the international scene.

The territorial expansion of the United States from the late 19th century onwards contributed to its emergence as a world power. In addition to the colonial conquest of Cuba, the Philippines and Puerto Rico, the US also acquired new territories such as Hawaii and Alaska. Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy, which was inspired by the maxim "Speak softly and carry a big stick", also contributed to the projection of US power on the international stage. For example, his policy of gunboat diplomacy was aimed at protecting American interests in Central and South America.

Japan adopted a policy of opening up to the world and rapid modernisation under the Meiji era from 1868 onwards, with the aim of catching up economically and militarily with the Western powers. In particular, the country developed modern industry, adopted Western techniques and technologies, and set up a modern army modelled on the European powers. Japan also pursued an imperialist policy in Asia, seeking to expand its territory and acquire colonies. It conquered Taiwan, Korea and part of China, as well as territories in the Pacific. This imperialist and expansionist policy led to conflicts with the European powers and the United States, notably during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and the Second World War.

Japan embarked on an extensive modernisation programme, called the Meiji Restoration, which transformed its economy, administration and military system. The country opened up to trade with the West and adopted modern technologies and practices, while preserving its cultural traditions. Japan rapidly industrialised and became a major regional economic power in Asia. Its navy was modernised and it began to expand its influence in Asia, notably by conquering Taiwan and Korea. Indeed, in 1894, China and Japan fought a war for control of Korea. Japan quickly gained the upper hand through modernisation and military superiority, winning decisive victories on land and at sea. The war ended with the Treaty of Shimonoseki in April 1895, in which China ceded Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, as well as recognising Korea's independence. This victory reinforced Japan's status as a regional power and contributed to the weakening of Chinese influence in East Asia. In 1905, Japan also won a decisive victory against Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, establishing its reputation as a military power. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was a major conflict between the Russian Empire and the Japanese Empire for control of Korea and Manchuria. Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in February 1904, which triggered the conflict. The Japanese won several decisive victories, including the Battle of Mukden and the naval battle of Tsushima. In September 1905, the two countries signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the war and gave Japan sovereignty over Korea and part of Manchuria. Japan's victory came as a surprise to many European powers, as it showed that Asian countries could compete with the great European powers militarily and politically.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States and Japan emerged as important economic and military powers outside Europe. The United States became the world's leading industrial power, while Japan rapidly modernised to become an important regional power. These new powers began to challenge the European balance, especially as Europe itself was facing increasing tensions between the various European powers.

The Era of Colonial Expansion

The 19th century was marked by a significant increase in the size of colonial empires, particularly those of the European powers. In 1800, these empires controlled about 35% of the earth's surface, but this figure had risen to 85% by 1914. Colonial conquest was one of the major phenomena of the 19th century. Almost all European powers embarked on this enterprise, and the consequences were considerable.

In the 19th century, the European powers undertook a major colonial expansion. This conquest of new territories allowed European countries to appropriate natural resources, to extend their cultural and economic influence, and to establish their power on the international scene. The British Empire was the largest of all, covering almost 33 million km² at its peak, including India, South Africa, Australia and Canada. France also expanded its colonial empire, notably in West Africa and Indochina. Germany established colonies in Africa and Asia, but to a lesser extent than the previous two powers. Other European countries, such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Russia, also established colonies in different parts of the world. However, the end of the 19th century saw the emergence of new colonial powers, such as the United States and Japan, which also began to extend their influence outside their national territory.

Imperialism is not only an economic rationale for seeking new markets and sources of raw materials. It is also motivated by political, strategic and symbolic aspirations. European states seek to extend their influence in the world in order to assert their power and prestige on the international scene, but also to satisfy public opinion and strengthen their national cohesion. In this context, the possession of colonies and territorial expansion were perceived as signs of greatness and superiority, and served to justify imperial policies to public opinion. This was particularly the case for Germany, which, as a recent and belatedly unified state, had to assert its place on the international scene by establishing itself in colonial areas and building a powerful war fleet.

Colonial expansion was often used as a tool to strengthen nationalism in European countries. Colonial powers presented colonisation as a means of extending the influence of their nation, culture and civilisation around the world, and this generated enthusiasm and support among citizens in their own countries. Colonial conquests also allowed European countries to compete with each other for territory and wealth, creating a sense of national competition that reinforced nationalist movements.

The Establishment of Colonial Empires

Colonisation often involved the territorial expansion of imperial states, which sought to establish their dominance over distant territories often populated by indigenous peoples. This domination was expressed through the establishment of political, economic and social regimes imposed by the metropolis, which sought to exploit the resources of the colonial territory for the benefit of its national economy. This situation of subjugation had important repercussions on the colonised populations, who suffered discrimination and deprivation of freedom, and who often opposed colonial domination.

Colonial empires are primarily territories to be exploited for the almost exclusive benefit of the metropolis. For many colonial empires, the colonising powers sought above all to exploit the natural resources of the colonised territories for their own economic benefit. For example, France exploited the mineral resources of Indochina and Africa, while Britain focused on the exploitation of raw materials in India and Africa. The Congo was an example of brutal colonial exploitation, particularly under the personal rule of King Leopold II of Belgium, who had made it his private property called the Independent State of Congo. The Congo was exploited for its natural resources, such as ivory and rubber, through forced labour, including the use of violence and mutilation. This exploitation had disastrous consequences for the local population, resulting in massive loss of life and suffering. Colonised peoples were often forced to work in harsh and exploitative conditions without adequate remuneration, creating economic and social inequalities between the metropolis and the colonies.

In the 19th century, seven European powers shared the world, but not equally. Britain, France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Italy were the major colonial powers. Britain and France far outnumber the others in terms of area and population colonised.

The colonised world in 1914.

The British Empire was the largest in the world at its peak, covering about 25% of the world's landmass and stretching across every part of the globe, including India, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, as well as colonies in North America and South East Asia. The British Empire was so extensive that it was said that "the sun never set on its possessions", due to the British presence on almost every continent in the world. The British Empire spans almost every part of the globe and comprises colonies, protectorates and dominions. The British Empire includes many colonies and protectorates on several continents, such as India, Nigeria, Egypt, Sudan and Rhodesia. It also includes dominions, settlements to which English and Irish settlers have migrated in large numbers and enjoy a degree of internal political autonomy. The dominions of the British Empire include Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In the latter, which are settlements, English and Irish people emigrated to populate sparsely populated lands. However, in the colonies and protectorates there was not as large an English presence as in the dominions. By the mid-19th century, the British dominions had evolved into self-governing systems, while remaining within the realm of the kingdom. The dominions had significant internal autonomy in governance, but in terms of foreign and defence policy they were tied to Britain. This is known as the "One Empire, One Foreign Policy" principle of the British Empire. However, the dominions can express themselves on the international stage through their participation in imperial conferences, where the various colonies and dominions discuss issues of common interest. This principle was reinforced by the Balfour Declaration of 1926, which established the equal status of Britain and its dominions in foreign policy matters. The possession of small islands was considered important to colonial empires because of their strategic utility. Islands could be used as naval bases, staging points for food and fuel supply to ships, or as transit points for goods. They could also provide natural resources such as mines or plantations. Colonial empires therefore competed for the possession of these islands, especially in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

The French Empire was the second largest empire in terms of area, after the British Empire. Unlike the British Empire, the French Empire was mainly centred on Africa and Asia, with colonies in Indochina, West and East Africa, Algeria and French Polynesia. France also exerted influence over independent states such as Morocco, Tunisia and Cambodia. The French Empire extended over vast territories in Africa and Asia, but was less extensive than the British Empire. Algeria was the only French colony to have the status of a department, which meant that it was an integral part of French territory. Other colonies and protectorates included territories such as Senegal, Mauritania, Tunisia, Morocco and Indochina.

The Dutch Empire, also known as the Dutch East Indies, consisted of numerous colonies and trading posts in various parts of the world, including Asia, Africa and the Americas. The most important colonies were in Indonesia, where the Dutch established a brutal colonial system that lasted for more than three centuries. Dutch Guiana (now Suriname) was also part of the Dutch Empire until its independence in 1975.

The Belgian Empire was mainly centred on the colony of Congo, which covered an area of over 2.3 million km² in Central Africa. The Congo was intensively exploited for its natural resources such as rubber and ivory, which had disastrous consequences for the Congolese population, who suffered atrocities committed by the Belgian colonisers. The colony of Congo finally gained its independence in 1960.

The Portuguese Empire also held colonies in Asia (such as Macao in China and Goa in India) and in South America (Brazil). In Africa, Portugal held colonies in the region of Angola and Mozambique, as well as smaller territories such as Sao Tome and Principe and Portuguese Guinea.

The Italian Empire conquered these three African territories during the Scramble for Africa, a period of intensive colonisation of Africa by European powers in the late 19th century. Eritrea was conquered in 1890, Somalia in 1908 and Libya in 1911. However, the Italian Empire lost its African colonies after the Second World War.

Russia expanded its territory eastward and southward, annexing lands in Central Asia and the Caucasus during the 19th century. This expansion was led by the Russian army and brought Russia closer to the Chinese border and the Black Sea. Chechnya, which was annexed in 1859, became a point of tension between the Russian authorities and Chechen separatists. In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to the United States, a decision that was criticised by some Russians at the time, but which proved beneficial to the US in terms of natural wealth.

Japan and the United States should be added as colonial empires because both countries were also involved in territorial expansion outside their own territory. Although Japan and the United States are located outside Europe, they also established colonies and protectorates in other parts of the world, such as the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico for the United States, and Korea and Taiwan for Japan. These territories were often acquired by force and administered as colonies, with political and economic control exercised by the colonising power.

Japan sought to modernise rapidly to avoid the colonisation of its territory by European powers that had established areas of influence in Asia. In this context, Japan carried out a series of economic, political and social reforms known as the Meiji Restoration from 1868. This modernisation allowed Japan to build a modern army and navy, which facilitated the conquest of new territories. Japan began its imperialist policy with the annexation of the island of Taiwan in 1895 following the victory in the Sino-Japanese war. Subsequently, Japan acquired new colonies in Asia, including Korea in 1910, as well as territories in the Pacific and China during the Second World War. After the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan acquired several territories, including the Liaodong Peninsula in China, Sakhalin Island and part of the Kuril Islands. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea, ending the Joseon Dynasty and establishing a colonial government. In the 1930s, Japan expanded its sphere of influence in Asia, including China, Indochina and the Pacific Islands, at the expense of European colonies.

The United States was formed in reaction to British colonial rule and led an anti-colonial revolution to gain independence. However, in the late 19th century, a strong debate emerged in the United States about its role in the world and the possibility of becoming a colonial power. The war against Spain in 1898 was a turning point in this issue, as it led to the conquest of several territories that became part of the American empire. This territorial expansion was controversial in the United States, with some seeing it as a violation of the nation's democratic and anti-colonial principles, while others supported it as a manifestation of American power and prestige. Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines and some islands became part of the new US empire. By the end of 1890, the US would also hold Hawaii and Alaska. From the beginning of the 20th century, the United States gradually turned away from colonial expansion to focus on its economic development and political influence around the world. It used its economic power to expand its influence and presence through trade agreements, foreign investment and international alliances. Although they retained some of their territorial possessions, notably Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, their colonial empire was largely abandoned in favour of an economic and political superpower role.

The Great Depression had a major economic impact on the colonial empires. Indeed, the colonial metropolises saw their economies weakened, which had an impact on their ability to maintain their domination over their colonies. In addition, the crisis provoked a rise in nationalism in the colonised countries, which began to demand their independence.

In an attempt to revive their economies, some colonial metropolises adopted a policy of economic protectionism, creating 'preferential markets' between the colonies and the metropolis. The aim of this policy was to favour trade between the metropolis and the colonies, to the detriment of trade with other countries. This policy helped to reinforce the economic exploitation of the colonies by the metropoles, but failed to prevent the rise of the independence movement.

The notion of a 'civilising mission' was often used to justify colonial expansion, particularly in Europe. Colonial powers claimed to bring civilisation and progress to peoples deemed 'backward' or 'primitive'. However, this justification was often used to disguise the real motivations for colonial expansion, which were the search for wealth, power and influence.

The colonisers often had little regard for the cultures and traditions of the colonised peoples, whom they sought to impose their own economic, social and political model. The consequences of this domination can still be felt today, with artificial borders and internal conflicts in many countries that have emerged from decolonisation.

Rivalry and competition: the Race for Colonies

The conquest of new lands created a rivalry between the different colonial powers, which sought to extend their influence and domination over the richest and most strategic territories. This rivalry led to a veritable "race for the colonies" in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The great European powers, such as France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and Portugal, but also Japan and the United States, engaged in this race for colonies, often to the detriment of the indigenous peoples who inhabited these territories. This competition was particularly intense in Africa, where the colonial powers sought to control natural wealth, especially raw materials such as rubber, diamonds, gold and oil. This rivalry between colonial powers also fuelled tensions and conflicts, such as the Boer War in South Africa (1899-1902), the Italian-Ethiopian War (1935-1936) and the Franco-Tunisian War (1881). Rivalry between the great powers was also one of the causes of the First World War, where colonial issues were one of the factors of tension between European nations.

The Berlin Conference: Sharing Africa

Representation of the Berlin Conference (in 1884) where representatives of the European powers met.

The Berlin Conference was held from 15 November 1884 to 26 February 1885 in Berlin, Germany. Its aim was to settle the problems of colonial rivalries between the various European powers by sharing the areas of influence and the territories to be colonised in Africa. The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck organised the conference and brought together 14 European countries and the United States. The decisions taken at this conference led to the almost total colonisation of Africa by the European powers.

Bismarck's main objective was to maintain peace in Europe, avoiding any confrontation with France, which had lost Alsace-Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. By promoting French colonisation in North Africa, he hoped to ease tensions with France and avoid a war. However, Bismarck also sought to strengthen Germany's position in the race for colonies in Africa. Therefore, at the Berlin Conference, Germany obtained several territories in West Africa, including Togo and Cameroon.

The Berlin Conference made it possible to organise the colonisation of Africa and to delimit the areas of influence of the European colonial powers on the continent. Still, it also exacerbated rivalries between the latter. Indeed, the race for colonies generated conflicts and tensions between the different powers, which clashed over the colonised territories. Thus, the rivalry between Great Britain and France crystallised in North Africa, where the two countries fought over the control of Egypt and Sudan. Similarly, the rivalry between Great Britain and Russia led to clashes in Central Asia, particularly over Afghanistan. Finally, the rivalry between Germany and France manifested itself in West Africa, where the two countries fought for control of Togo and Cameroon. These colonial rivalries contributed to an atmosphere of tension in Europe, which eventually led to the First World War. Indeed, colonial rivalries fuelled tensions between European powers, which fought an all-out war for control of colonial territories.

The Impact of the Colonisation of Africa

British Egypt and Sudan. On this 1912 map, the site of Fachoda (Kodok) can be seen to the south on the Nile.

In the early 18th century, most parts of Africa were independent political entities with their own cultures, languages and political systems. Europeans had established trading posts and coastal settlements, but most of the interior of the continent remained beyond their reach. However, over time, European powers increased their presence in Africa, using military, political and economic means to expand their influence on the continent.

Rivalries between the colonial powers also took place in Africa. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 was the starting point for the colonisation of Africa by the European powers. The European countries divided the African continent among themselves, without taking into account the traditional borders between the different African ethnic groups and cultures. Rivalries between the colonial powers led to armed conflicts between them for the possession of certain regions in Africa, such as the Boer War in South Africa between the British and the Afrikaners, or the Italian-Ethiopian War of 1895-1896.

Europeans also sought to extend their influence in Africa by indirect means, such as signing treaties with local chiefs, creating protectorates or zones of influence. The colonisation of Africa had dramatic consequences for the African people, including the loss of their sovereignty, the dispossession of their land and natural resources, the exploitation of African labour, and the suppression of their cultures and traditions.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the European powers divided Africa into zones of influence, but this did not prevent rivalries and conflicts between them for the domination of certain regions.

Britain and France were two major colonial powers that sought to extend their influence in Africa in the 19th century. Britain gradually established its hold on Egypt, Sudan, South Africa, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and East Africa. France, on the other hand, expanded its empire in West Africa (Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, Guinea), Central Africa (Chad, Congo-Brazzaville) and East Africa (Djibouti, French Somalia). The rivalry between these two colonial powers was exemplified by the Fachoda crisis of 1898, which pitted France and Britain against each other over the Upper Nile region, but was eventually resolved peacefully through diplomatic compromise.

France, which had succeeded in colonising Tunisia in 1881, came into conflict with Italy, which also had hopes of colonising the territory. This created a rivalry between France and Italy in North Africa. Indeed, Italy saw France's colonisation of Tunisia as a missed opportunity to expand in the region.

After the 1890s, Germany began to turn to a global expansion policy, opposing Britain and France's colonial ambitions in Africa. This policy culminated in the Moroccan crisis of 1905-1906, when Germany opposed the French protectorate over Morocco. This crisis highlighted the rivalries between the European powers for control of colonies and areas of influence, and led to diplomatic negotiations to resolve the conflict.

The dismantling of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire experienced a gradual economic, political and military decline throughout the 19th century. European powers, notably Britain, France and Russia, became increasingly interested in the lands and resources of the Ottoman Empire. This rivalry between the European powers was particularly evident in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which pitted Russia against the British, French and Ottoman empires. The question of the Ottoman Empire also became a major issue in the relations between Great Britain and Russia in Central Asia. Both powers sought to extend their influence in the region and to control the strategic trade routes that crossed it, notably the Silk Road. This rivalry led to the Anglo-Afghan War of 1878-1880 and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

From the second half of the 19th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire lost its influence and became increasingly dependent on the great European powers. Several factors contributed to this situation, including the rise of Europe and the Industrial Revolution, which gave European countries an economic and military advantage over the Ottoman Empire. In addition, internal conflicts, wars and revolts weakened the central power of the Ottoman Empire, thus weakening its position on the international scene. The great European powers then sought to take advantage of this situation by extending their influence over the territories of the Ottoman Empire. As a result, the Ottoman Empire became increasingly subject to the interests and decisions of the European Great Powers.

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 were marked by conflicts between the European powers over the extension of their influence in the Balkans. The Balkans was a strategic region for the Great Powers because of its geographical position and economic importance. The Balkan Wars saw the Ottoman Empire lose almost all its territories in Europe, leaving only Constantinople and part of Thrace. The fall of the Ottoman Empire in Europe reinforced the rivalry between the major European powers for the sharing of areas of influence in the Middle East. The European powers, especially Britain and France, began to compete for control of the Ottoman Empire's territories, especially in Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia. This rivalry was an important factor in the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

The Italian conquest of Libya in 1911 is an example of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. This conquest was facilitated by the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and the rivalries between the major European powers, all of whom sought to take advantage of the situation. The subsequent Italo-Turkish War resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and the loss of Libya and several other territories. This defeat contributed to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and its isolation on the international scene.

The discovery of oil at the beginning of the 20th century was a major issue for the European powers and contributed to their interest in oil-producing regions. European oil companies established themselves in the countries of the Middle East and North Africa, and the major powers sought to secure their oil supplies by securing control of these regions. This race for oil was also a factor in tensions and rivalries between the European powers and contributed to the rise in international tensions that led to the First World War. The decline of the Ottoman Empire was partly due to its inability to modernise its economy and adapt to the technological changes of the time, including the use of oil as an energy source. The great European powers, on the other hand, quickly realised the importance of oil and sought to control access to it to ensure their economic and political dominance. The discovery of oil deposits in the Black Sea region and the Middle East thus exacerbated the rivalries between the European powers and accentuated the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which was struggling to exploit its own oil resources. European and American oil companies quickly gained a foothold in the region, taking advantage of the political instability and weakness of the Ottoman Empire to impose their economic interests.

The Stakes of the Far East

The Far East was also an area of rivalry between the colonial powers, notably Britain, Russia and Japan. Britain was particularly concerned about Russia's rise in Central Asia and its presence in Manchuria, which threatened its interests in India. The British also had important economic interests in China, which was then a lucrative market for British exports.

Colonial rivalries in the Far East led to several conflicts, including the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, which saw Russia defeated by Japan, an emerging regional power. This conflict demonstrated the vulnerability of colonial powers to determined adversaries and had an impact on international relations in the region and beyond.

Afghanistan was a strategic country for the Russian and British empires because of its geographical position between the two powers. In 1878-79, Britain fought the Second Anglo-Afghan War, which resulted in the creation of an independent buffer state between the Russian Empire and British India. Russia had attempted to extend its influence over Afghanistan, which led Britain to intervene to protect its interests in the region. This rivalry between the two European powers had dramatic consequences for Afghanistan, which faced numerous conflicts and political instabilities throughout the 20th century.

The forced opening up of China by foreign powers from 1840-1850, known as the 'unequal treaty', led to significant tensions in China. Western powers, led by Britain, sought to establish concessions in Chinese ports to facilitate trade, but also to extend their influence over the whole country. Conflicts resulting from these imperialist ambitions led to several wars, including the Opium War (1839-1842), the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901). These events weakened the Qing Dynasty and led to the creation of foreign zones of influence in China.

From the end of the 19th century, the great powers began to export their rivalries and conflicts to different parts of the world, including Asia, Africa and the Pacific. This led to clashes and colonial wars, where European powers fought for territorial dominance, access to resources and political influence in these regions. However, South America was considered a "reserved area" by the United States, which sought to expand its influence in the region and prevent other powers from establishing themselves there. This "Monroe Doctrine" policy was enunciated by US President James Monroe in 1823, and it served as the basis for US foreign policy in Latin America during the 19th and 20th centuries.

The establishment of Alliance Systems

The establishment of alliance systems contributed to the disintegration of international political conditions in the early 20th century. The major European powers grouped themselves into two main alliance blocs: the Triple Entente (France, UK, Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). This polarisation led to increased tensions between the two blocs, with heightened economic, military and colonial rivalries.

The alliance systems also contributed to the broadening and internationalisation of conflicts, as happened in the First World War. When the war broke out, alliances led to a general mobilisation of many countries, beyond the initial confrontation between Germany and France. The war spread across Europe and beyond, involving many countries and resulting in the deaths of millions.

The Role and Impact of the Triple Alliance

The Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

The term "duplicity" was used to refer to the alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. The term comes from the Latin "duplex", which means "double" or "consisting of two parts". The alliance was also known as the "Three Emperors' Alliance", as it was initiated by German Emperor Wilhelm II, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph and Russian Tsar Nicholas II when they met in Skierniewice, Poland, in September 1884. However, this alliance ended in 1890 when Wilhelm II renewed the treaty of reassurance with Russia.

The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, also known as the "duplicity", was concluded in 1879 by a treaty of friendship and alliance. At the time, the two countries were in competition to achieve the unity of the German-speaking peoples in Central Europe, but they came to recognise their common interests in the face of common threats. This alliance was strengthened over the years, with the participation of Italy in 1882 to form the Triple Alliance.

The 1881 treaty between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia did not work because the interests of the three powers diverged. Russia wanted to protect the Slavs in the Balkans, which was contrary to the interests of Austria-Hungary, which wanted to control the region. In 1882, a new treaty was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and, this time, Italy, forming the Triple Alliance. This treaty was designed to counter the Triple Entente formed by France, Russia and Great Britain, and guaranteed military assistance in the event of aggression by one of the signatory powers.

Italy had colonial ambitions in North Africa and Tunisia was one of the areas it coveted. In 1882, Italy joined the Double Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which then became the Triple Alliance. This treaty stipulated that the three countries would assist each other in the event of an attack by a fourth power and remain neutral in the event of an attack on one of the members by a non-signatory power. Italy had thus found allies to help it realise its colonial ambitions in North Africa.

Italy actually signed a secret agreement with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, which formed the Central Powers Alliance. However, during the First World War, Italy switched sides and joined the Triple Entente in 1915, having signed secret agreements with France and Britain in 1915.

The Central Powers included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. This bloc was mainly located in Central and Eastern Europe, hence its name. The Central Powers were in opposition to the Triple Entente, which consisted of France, Great Britain, and Russia. The First World War was thus marked by the confrontation of these two rival blocs.

The Formation and Influence of the Triple Entente

Triple Entente.jpg

There was no formal treaty between the countries of the Triple Entente (France, UK, Russia). However, there were informal agreements and mutual commitments that strengthened their alliance. For example, France and Russia had signed a military agreement in 1892 which provided for mutual aid in the event of an attack by Germany or Austria-Hungary. Similarly, the United Kingdom signed a series of agreements with France in the early 20th century to strengthen their military and naval cooperation in the Mediterranean and Africa. These agreements and mutual commitments led to growing solidarity between the countries of the Triple Entente, even in the absence of a formal treaty.

In 1892, a Franco-Russian treaty strengthened economic ties. In 1892, France and Russia signed a treaty of alliance which strengthened the economic, military and diplomatic ties between the two countries. This treaty was renewed in 1894 for a period of 10 years, then in 1904 for an unlimited period. The Triple Entente was completed by the Entente Cordiale, an agreement between France and the United Kingdom in 1904, which put an end to decades of mistrust between the two countries. The agreement included the recognition of France's sphere of influence in Morocco and the UK's sphere of influence in Egypt. The agreement was concluded between the UK and Russia to resolve their differences in Central Asia and Persia. It also provided for cooperation in the event of aggression by Germany or Austria-Hungary against one of the signatories. The Triple Entente thus consisted of France, Russia and the United Kingdom, and was directed against Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 resolved the differences between the two powers in the Far East, including Tibet. The British agreed to recognise Russia's political and economic interest in the region, while the Russians agreed not to interfere with British interests in India. This allowed the formation of the Triple Entente with France, which was already linked to Russia by a treaty of alliance.

The military agreement between Britain and Japan was signed in 1902, before the formation of the Triple Entente. This agreement was intended to protect the two countries' common interests in Asia against Russia and to ensure the security of their respective possessions in the region. It was renewed in 1905 and 1911, and helped strengthen Britain's influence in the region and weaken Russia's position in the Far East. Japan also played a key role in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which saw the defeat of Russia and the strengthening of Japan's position in Asia.

The existence of the alliance agreements led to an escalation of tensions and polarisation between the two alliance blocs. Countries felt obliged to support each other if they went to war, even if the reasons for a country going to war were not always clear or justified. The assurance of military support led some countries to adopt a more aggressive attitude and to take risks that eventually led to war. For example, Germany took the risk of declaring war on France and Russia in 1914 because of its alliance with Austria-Hungary, even though the reasons for the war were unclear and Germany was not directly threatened.

The First World War: The Suicide of Europe

The First World War, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, was a devastating global conflict that resulted in the deaths of millions of people and caused massive destruction in many parts of the world. It was triggered by a series of political, economic and territorial tensions between the major European powers, and ultimately led to the formation of two opposing camps: the Allies (the United Kingdom, France, Russia and the United States, among others) and the Central Empires (Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, among others).

The conflict broke out in 1914, after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist. Alliances and rivalries between the major European powers quickly led to military escalation, with Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria entering the war against the Allies (United Kingdom, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and the United States).

The consequences of the First World War were disastrous for Europe and the world. Millions of people died, both in the fighting and in the indirect consequences of the conflict, such as famine and disease. Vast territories were devastated, economies were ruined and societies were disrupted.

The war was characterised by fierce fighting on wide fronts, increasingly sophisticated military technology, massive loss of life and inhuman living conditions for soldiers and civilians. The battles of Verdun, the Somme and Passchendaele are examples of the horror of trench warfare that marked the conflict.

The First World War also had lasting geopolitical consequences. The German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires collapsed, leaving new states in place. Russia underwent a revolution that led to the creation of the Soviet Union, while Europe experienced a period of political and economic instability that contributed to the rise of authoritarian and fascist regimes.

Escalating tensions: Preamble to the Conflict

The crisis of the summer of 1914 was only the latest in a series of increasingly severe crises. First there was the Moroccan crisis, which led to the Algeciras conference, then the Italian invasion of Libya in 1911, which shook the European balance, because everything that touched the Ottoman Empire triggered tensions; then the Balkan wars in 1912 - 1913, which were a prelude to the First World War.

From the 20th century onwards, there is a series of crises that generate tensions between the European powers. The blocs were in opposition and embarked on an "arms race", while alliances extended to many other countries, completing the blocs and crystallising oppositions. Following the Balkan wars, which it had provoked and lost, Bulgaria, which had previously been allied with Serbia, joined the 'triple alliance', while Greece sided with the 'triple entente'.

From Local Crisis to Igniting European War

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: The Initial Fuse

The Sarajevo bombing is considered the triggering event of the First World War. On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina, by a young Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip. Gavrilo Princip was a Serbian nationalist born on 25 July 1894 in Obljaj, in what was then the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Bosnia and Herzegovina). He is best known for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, in an attack in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. Princip was a member of an underground group called the 'Black Hand', which sought to promote the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and its attachment to Serbia. He had received military training in Serbia before returning to Bosnia to participate in the attack. On 28 June 1914, Princip and several other members of the Black Hand attacked the car of Archduke Franz Ferdinand while he was visiting Sarajevo. Princip managed to shoot the Archduke and his wife, Sophie, with a pistol. This event triggered a series of alliances and reactions that eventually led to military escalation and the outbreak of the First World War. After the attack, Princip was arrested and imprisoned. He was tried and sentenced to 20 years in prison for his role in the assassination of the Archduke. He died in prison in 1918, at the age of 23, of tuberculosis.

This event triggered a series of alliances and reactions that eventually led to military escalation and the outbreak of war in Europe. Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of being behind the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and demanded reparations. Serbia had been seen as a source of tension for the Austro-Hungarian Empire since the 1870s-1880s. At that time, Serbia sought to unify the Slavic populations of the southern Balkans, including those under Austro-Hungarian rule. This policy was seen as a threat by the Austro-Hungarian rulers, who feared losing their influence over the Slavic populations and seeing their empire break up.

In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, a Slavic-majority province that had been under protectorate since 1878. This decision was not welcomed by the Serbs, who considered Bosnia and Herzegovina to be part of their sphere of influence. Tensions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary intensified, especially after Serbia began to support nationalist movements in the Austro-Hungarian provinces populated by South Slavs.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, which was organised by Serbian nationalists, was seen as a provocation by Austria-Hungary, which demanded reparations from Serbia. This led to a series of alliances and reactions that eventually led to military escalation and the outbreak of the First World War. Serbia refused to submit to Austrian demands, which led to a declaration of war by Austria-Hungary against Serbia on 28 July 1914. Alliances between the major European powers quickly led to military escalation, with Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria entering the war against the Allies (the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and the United States).

Although the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is seen as the trigger for the war, the root causes of the conflict were much more complex and deep-seated, with factors such as nationalism, imperialism and economic and political tensions between the major European powers.

The Western Front between 1915 and 1916 - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1914-1945/cartes/FrontOuest1915-16.html atlas-historique.net

Key Chronology of Events Precipitating the

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, on 28 June 1914, is considered the triggering event of the First World War. The murder created a major international crisis, which led to an escalation of tensions between European countries and a series of alliances, which eventually led to war. Gavrilo Princip, who murdered the Archduke, was a Serbian nationalist with links to the Serbian terrorist group the Black Hand.

After the Sarajevo bombing, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July 1914, demanding an investigation into Serbia's involvement in the bombing and the suppression of anti-Austrian activities on its territory. Serbia agreed to most, but not all, of the demands, and Austria-Hungary finally declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, leading to an escalation of tensions and alliances that culminated in world war.

After Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, alliances were formed and one country after another declared war. Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914 and on France the following day, leading to the United Kingdom entering the war in support of France. Subsequently, many other countries joined the conflict, including Italy, Japan, the United States, the Ottoman Empire, etc. By mid-August 1914, most of the major European powers were involved in the conflict.

After declaring war on France on 3 August 1914, Germany launched a lightning offensive through Belgium, hoping to defeat France quickly before reinforcements could arrive. This rapid advance was halted by the resistance of French and British forces and the Battle of the Marne, which took place from 6 to 12 September 1914. This was one of the most important battles of the First World War, and it eventually drove back the German forces and saved Paris from capture. However, the war was not to be as short as expected, and the struggle would continue for another four years, resulting in massive losses of life and property.

After the Battle of the Marne in September 1914, French and British forces sought to continue the offensive into Germany. However, the German armies were able to withdraw and entrench themselves in well-established defensive positions, which stretched from the North Sea to the Swiss border, through Belgium and France. Both sides therefore began a 'race to the sea', attempting to outflank the other from the west, which eventually led to the construction of trenches to protect the occupied positions. This marked the beginning of trench warfare, which would last for several years.

In December 1914, the war front ran from the English Channel to the German border, stretching some 700 kilometres across northern France and Belgium. Both sides were deeply entrenched in defensive trench positions, and military operations had become static and deadly confrontations between the two sides. However, there were still attempts to break the stalemate, and fighting would continue on this front until the end of the war in 1918.

From December 1914 until the end of the war in November 1918, armies on both sides were drawn into a war of position, which consisted of a series of deep, fortified trenches protected by barbed wire and heavy guns. The trenches were often located only a few dozen metres from the enemy's, and both sides fought hard to try to gain the upper hand. Military operations consisted mainly of small-scale attacks on enemy trenches, massive artillery bombardments and long-planned offensives to try to break through enemy lines. This war of position was one of the most distinctive features of the First World War, and it resulted in massive losses of life and property on both sides.

Positional warfare, or trench warfare, which took place on the Western Front of the First World War between 1915 and 1918, was a veritable slaughter. Soldiers on both sides were confined to narrow, unhealthy trenches, exposed to the elements and disease, and subjected to relentless artillery fire, poison gas, air raids, machine gun attacks and bayonet assaults. The loss of life was enormous, with millions of dead and wounded, both soldiers and civilians affected by the fighting and displacement. This trench warfare also had significant psychological and social repercussions, with many soldiers suffering from trauma, psychiatric disorders and eating disorders.

1916 was a particularly deadly year in the First World War, with two major battles taking place on the Western Front: the Battle of Verdun and the Somme Offensive. The Battle of Verdun began in February 1916 when German forces launched a massive offensive on the town of Verdun in eastern France. It was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the war, lasting almost 10 months. It was marked by fierce fighting, massive bombardment, the use of poison gas, and considerable loss of life on both sides. The Somme Offensive began in July 1916, when British and French forces launched a coordinated offensive along a 40km front in northern France. This battle was also very deadly, with heavy casualties on both sides, particularly from German machine gun fire that mowed down wave after wave of Allied soldiers. Both battles resulted in huge casualties, with several hundred thousand dead and wounded on each side.

The Chemin des Dames Offensive took place in April 1917 on the Western Front of the First World War. The offensive was launched by French forces under the command of General Nivelle and aimed to break the German lines in the Aisne region of France. However, the offensive turned out to be an abject failure for the French forces, who suffered heavy casualties without succeeding in breaking through the German lines. The French soldiers were ill-prepared and ill-equipped, and the Germans had reinforced their defences in anticipation of the attack. The Chemin des Dames Offensive had disastrous consequences for France, with almost 200,000 soldiers killed, wounded or captured, and a serious moral crisis in the army and the civilian population. The defeat also led to mutinies in the French army and the resignation of Nivelle.

The entry of the United States into the war in April 1917 had a significant impact on the balance of power between the warring powers. The US provided significant economic and military support to the Allies, which helped to strengthen their fighting capacity. The US also provided fresh, well-equipped troops to fight on the front line, which helped relieve the pressure on the exhausted European troops. The arrival of the US army also created a new dynamic on the front, increasing the number of troops and bringing innovative technologies and tactics. However, it should be noted that American troops were slow to arrive at the front and to become operational, and their contribution to the final victory of the war was relatively limited compared to that of the other Allies. Nevertheless, the entry of the United States into the war helped to change the course of the war and strengthen the position of the Allies.

In 1918, the situation on the front line shifted in favour of the Triple Entente, consisting of France, the UK and Russia (which withdrew in 1917). The Allied forces successfully resisted the German offensives of March 1918 and regained the initiative with decisive counter-offensives in the summer and autumn of the same year. The Allied Marne offensive in July 1918 broke the German lines and forced their retreat, while the Meuse-Argonne offensive in September-November 1918 helped to isolate and weaken the German forces. At the same time, the domestic situation in Germany was deteriorating, with strikes, mutinies and civil unrest increasing. The Allied naval blockade had also begun to starve the German population. Faced with this situation, Germany asked for an armistice in November 1918, ending the war.

On 11 November 1918, Germany signed the armistice ending the fighting in the First World War. Hostilities officially ceased at 11 a.m., ending more than four years of war that had left millions dead and wounded. Negotiations for a peace treaty lasted several more months and were finally concluded with the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919.

Russia was one of the key players in the First World War, entering the war in August 1914 alongside France and the United Kingdom. However, it suffered heavy defeats at the hands of Austro-Hungarian and German forces on the Eastern Front, notably at Tannenberg in August 1914. In 1917, the situation in Russia deteriorated due to the economic and social crisis and the unpopularity of the war. This led to the October Revolution, which saw the Bolsheviks take power and set up a communist government. In March 1918, the new Russian government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, which ended Russia's participation in the war. This allowed Germany to transfer its troops to the Western Front, which made the situation worse for the Allies

The fighting in the Balkans was very intense during the First World War. Romania, which had signed a secret agreement with the Allies in 1916, joined the war on the side of the Triple Entente in August of that year. However, the Romanian offensive soon failed in the face of the German and Austro-Hungarian army, and Romania suffered heavy territorial losses. Serbia was attacked by Austria-Hungary from the beginning of the war and suffered heavy defeats. However, with the help of France and Britain, Serbia was able to launch a counter-offensive in 1918, which contributed to the defeat of Austria-Hungary and the end of the war.

The Russian Empire's ambition was to expand southwards towards the Mediterranean and in particular to take control of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits, which the Ottoman Empire then controlled. This ambition led Russia to support nationalist movements in the Balkans and to engage in war against the Ottoman Empire in 1914, as part of the First World War.

Fronts of the First World War

The Globalisation of Conflict: International Actors

The First World War quickly took on a global dimension, involving European empires and their colonies and allies around the world. For example, British, French and German colonies were mobilised to join the war effort, sending soldiers and resources to Europe. The conflict also extended to colonial territories, with fighting in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. European empires fought for control of these territories, while nationalist and independence movements also gained momentum in these regions. In addition, the war also affected trade and economic relations around the world, disrupting trade and the flow of goods. The globalisation of the war thus amplified the consequences of the conflict and its repercussions were felt throughout the world.

The-World-and-the-First-World-Conflict - [http://www.atlas-historique.net/1914-1945/cartes/Monde1914-18.html atlas-historique.net

The First World War was a total conflict that involved military, economic and ideological aspects. At the military level, battles were fought on all fronts, including land, sea and air. Supplies of materials, food and resources were essential to the conduct of the war, hence the importance of economic warfare and the blockade strategy. In terms of ideological warfare, the countries involved sought to justify their participation using nationalist and imperialist arguments. Ideologies such as social Darwinism, patriotism and nationalism were used to justify the loss of life and the atrocities committed. The notion of 'civilisation' was also used to justify colonial wars and territorial conquests.

The colonies of the European powers

The First World War also had important consequences in the colonies of European powers. The German colonies, especially in Africa, were the scene of fighting between the forces of the various colonial empires. British and French troops conquered the German colonies and seized their wealth, such as plantations, mines and natural resources. The colonies were also involved in the war effort, sending colonial troops to fight on the European fronts. Several hundred thousand African, Asian and American soldiers were mobilised, often in very difficult conditions. The colonies also provided resources and raw materials essential to the war effort, such as rubber, palm oil and cotton. This led to increased exploitation of the colonies and worsening working conditions for the local population.

The role of the United States

American public opinion was divided over whether to go to war. On the one hand, those in favour of intervention were convinced that the United States should defend democratic values and help its European allies. On the other, isolationists advocated neutrality and feared that the war would damage the American economy. However, the United States' entry into the war in 1917 was ultimately motivated by several factors, including the attack on the liner Lusitania by a German submarine in 1915, which had resulted in the deaths of many Americans, and the discovery of a German plot to induce Mexico to declare war on the United States. Entry into the war was also seen as an opportunity for the United States to strengthen its position as a world power and to promote its democratic values abroad.

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The torpedoing of the liner Lusitania in 1915 by the Germans was a key event that contributed to the United States' entry into the war in 1917. The Lusitania was a British passenger ship sailing from New York to Liverpool. On 7 May 1915, it was torpedoed by a German submarine off the coast of Ireland, killing nearly 1,200 passengers, including 128 Americans. This act of war shocked American public opinion and prompted President Woodrow Wilson to call Germany to account. Although the Germans justified the attack by claiming that the ship was carrying munitions, American public opinion saw the act as an unjustified attack on innocent civilians. This contributed to the United States' decision to enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente in 1917..

Indeed, in 1917, the Germans decided to wage all-out submarine warfare, i.e. to sink all merchant ships, including those of neutral countries, that approached the coast of Europe. This strategy was intended to weaken the Allied war effort by depriving them of food and weapons supplies from the United States and other neutral countries. In response to the all-out submarine war, the United States broke its neutrality and entered the war on the side of the Entente in April 1917. American participation played an important role in the outcome of the war, helping to strengthen the Entente offensive on the Western Front. The US also provided crucial financial and material support to the Allies, which helped to hasten the end of the war.

The Zimmerman Telegram is an important event of the First World War that took place in January 1917. It was a message sent by the German Foreign Minister, Arthur Zimmerman, to the German Ambassador to Mexico, proposing an alliance between Mexico and Germany against the United States. In exchange for this alliance, Germany promised to support Mexico in its recapture of the territories in Texas, California and New Mexico, lost in the Mexican-American War in 1848. The Zimmerman telegram was intercepted and decoded by the British Secret Service, which forwarded it to the United States. This event provoked public outrage in the United States and contributed to the US decision to enter the war against Germany in April 1917.

The involvement of Japan

Japan took advantage of Germany's entry into the war to expand its influence in Asia and the Pacific. It sent troops to China and Korea to consolidate its regional presence. Japan also sent warships to help the Allies patrol the Pacific Ocean and intercept German ships. Japan's participation in the war reinforced its status as a world power and paved the way for its territorial expansion in the following years.

Japan joined the war on the side of the Entente because of its alliance with Britain. However, its participation was mainly limited to military operations in the Pacific and Asia. In particular, Japanese troops occupied German colonies in the Pacific region, including the Marshall Islands and the Mariana Islands. Japan also provided warships and troops to assist Allied forces in naval operations in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Japan's role in the First World War helped to reinforce its status as an emerging power on the world stage.

The commitment of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire played an important role in the First World War. The Empire was one of the main allies of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Ottomans fought on several fronts, including Mesopotamia (Iraq) against the British, Palestine against the British and French, and the Caucasus against the Russians.

The control of the Dardanelles Straits, linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, was a major strategic issue for the Allies. In 1915, the Allies launched an amphibious offensive to take control of the straits. This campaign was a costly failure for the Allies and contributed to the consolidation of the power of the Young Turks, the ruling party in the Ottoman Empire, which pursued a policy of genocide against the Armenians and other Christian minorities in the Empire.

Eventually, the Ottoman Empire was defeated by British and Arab forces in 1918, and the Treaty of Sevres was signed in 1920, ending the war for the Ottoman Empire and resulting in the partition of the Empire.

South America in the Conflict

Several South American countries participated in the First World War, mainly as suppliers of raw materials and logistical support. Brazil entered the war in 1917 on the side of the Triple Entente, mainly due to the destruction of Brazilian ships by German submarines. Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and Peru also provided supplies and war materials to the Triple Entente, while Paraguay and Ecuador remained neutral. These countries sought to position themselves on the international stage and to strengthen their political and economic influence.

The involvement of some South American countries, such as Brazil, in the First World War enabled them to participate in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, which redrawn the political map of Europe and the world, and to become part of the League of Nations, the international organisation created to maintain peace after the war. This participation strengthened their role and influence in international affairs and contributed to their emancipation from the European powers and the United States.

The Mobilisation of the Colonial Empires

Empires also mobilised their economic and human potential to support the war effort. Colonies and territories under imperial rule provided an abundant workforce to support the war effort, supplying soldiers, workers and resources. France and Britain mobilised colonial troops, particularly in Africa, while British colonies such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand sent troops and provided significant economic support. The colonies were also called upon to produce raw materials and to participate in the industrial war effort. Imperial territories provided raw materials such as rubber, palm oil, minerals and precious metals, while colonial industries were mobilised to supply consumer and war goods such as clothing, footwear, weapons and munitions.

However, the economic and human mobilisation of the Empires also had negative consequences for the colonial and indigenous populations, who often suffered harsh working conditions and severe restrictions on their freedom of movement and daily life. In addition, the participation of the colonies in the war gave rise to aspirations for independence and national liberation, which emerged with new strength after the end of the war.

The First World War was a conflict that involved many countries around the world, be it militarily, economically, politically or culturally. Colonial empires mobilised populations and resources from the colonies to support the war effort, while neutral countries suffered significant economic consequences due to the disruption of world trade and the shortage of raw materials. In addition, the conflict also had an impact on international politics and the formation of new states after the war, such as the creation of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland.

Final Reflections: Europe at the Centre of the World, from the End of the 19th Century to 1918

The period from the end of the 19th century to the end of the First World War can be seen as a time when Europe was at the centre of the world, politically, economically and culturally. European empires dominated the world and their rivalry for control of territory and resources intensified.

The First World War was the culmination of this rivalry and had dramatic consequences for Europe and the world. This global conflict led to unprecedented human and material losses, major political changes, the rise of nationalism, liberation movements in the colonies and the emergence of the United States as a global superpower.

The First World War also led to the birth of the League of Nations, the forerunner of the United Nations, in the hope of preventing future global conflicts. However, the consequences of the war also contributed to the rise of Nazism in Germany and the Second World War.

Ultimately, the period from the end of the 19th century to the end of the First World War was marked by unchallenged European dominance and rivalries that led to a world war. This had profound consequences for Europe and the world, which continued long after the conflict ended.

The First World War profoundly changed the world order and marked the beginning of the end of European hegemony over the world. The enormous loss of life and property led to a questioning of the values and certainties that governed European society. In addition, the war accelerated the emergence of new powers such as the United States, Japan and the Soviet Union, which would challenge the world balance.

The war also had important economic consequences, with the rise of the United States as the world's leading economic power and the decline of Europe. Finally, the war paved the way for new conflicts, in particular the Second World War, which would further upset the world order.

The First World War marked a major turning point in world history, which saw Europe gradually lose its position as world leader and which would permanently upset the geopolitical balance.

Annexes

Références