Introduction to the sub-discipline of international relations - Historique des versions

Arthur le 7 juillet 2023 à 09:49

2023-07-07T09:49:26Z

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	\|[[Introduction to Political Science]]		\|[[Introduction to Political Science]]
	\|[[~~La pensée sociale d'~~Émile Durkheim et Pierre Bourdieu]] ● [[~~Aux origines de la chute de la République de~~ Weimar]] ● [[~~La pensée sociale de~~ Max Weber et Vilfredo Pareto]] ● [[La notion ~~de «~~ concept ~~» en~~ sciences~~-sociales~~]] ● [[~~Histoire de la~~ discipline ~~de la~~ science ~~politique~~ : ~~théories et conceptions~~]] ● [[~~Marxisme et Structuralisme~~]] ● [[~~Fonctionnalisme et Systémisme~~]] ● [[~~Interactionnisme et Constructivisme~~]] ● [[~~Les théories de l’anthropologie politique~~]] ● [[~~Le débat des trois~~ I : ~~intérêts~~, institutions ~~et idées~~]] ● [[~~La théorie du choix rationnel et l'analyse des intérêts en~~ science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~Approche analytique des~~ institutions en science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~L'étude des idées et idéologies dans la~~ science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~Les théories de la guerre en~~ science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~La Guerre~~ : ~~conceptions et évolutions~~]] ● [[~~La raison d’État~~]] ● [[~~État~~, ~~souveraineté~~, ~~mondialisation, gouvernance multiniveaux~~]] ● [[~~Les théories de la~~ violence ~~en science politique~~]] ● [[Welfare State ~~et biopouvoir~~]] ● [[~~Analyse des régimes démocratiques et des processus de démocratisation~~]] ● [[~~Systèmes Électoraux~~ : ~~Mécanismes~~, ~~Enjeux et Conséquences~~]] ● [[~~Le système de gouvernement des démocraties~~]] ● [[~~Morphologie des~~ contestations]] ● [[~~L’action dans la théorie politique~~]] ● [[Introduction ~~à la politique suisse~~]] ● [[Introduction ~~au comportement politique~~]] ● [[~~Analyse des Politiques Publiques~~ : ~~définition et~~ cycle ~~d'une politique publique~~]] ● [[~~Analyse des Politiques Publiques~~ : ~~mise à l'~~agenda et formulation]] ● [[~~Analyse des Politiques Publiques~~ : ~~mise en œuvre et évaluation~~]] ● [[Introduction ~~à la sous~~-discipline ~~des~~ relations ~~internationales~~]]		\|[[Intellectual legacy of Émile Durkheim and Pierre Bourdieu in social theory]] ● [[The origins of the fall of the Weimar Republic]] ● [[Intellectual legacy of Max Weber and Vilfredo Pareto in social theory]] ● [[The notion of "concept" in social sciences]] ● [[History of the discipline of political science: theories and concepts]] ● [[Marxism and Structuralism]] ● [[Functionalism and Systemism]] ● [[Interactionism and Constructivism]] ● [[The theories of political anthropology]] ● [[The three I's debate: interests, institutions and ideas]] ● [[Rational choice theory and the analysis of interests in political science]] ● [[An analytical approach to institutions in political science]] ● [[The study of ideas and ideologies in political science]] ● [[Theories of war in political science]] ● [[The War: Concepts and Evolutions]] ● [[The reason of State]] ● [[State, sovereignty, globalization and multi-level governance]] ● [[Theories of violence in political science‎‎]] ● [[Welfare State and Biopower]] ● [[Analysis of democratic regimes and democratisation processes]] ● [[Electoral Systems: Mechanisms, Issues and Consequences]] ● [[The system of government in democracies]] ● [[Morphology of contestations]] ● [[Action in Political Theory]] ● [[Introduction to Swiss politics]] ● [[Introduction to political behaviour]] ● [[Public Policy Analysis: Definition and cycle of public policy]] ● [[Public Policy Analysis: agenda setting and formulation]] ● [[Public Policy Analysis: Implementation and Evaluation]] ● [[Introduction to the sub-discipline of international relations]] ● [[Introduction to Political Theory]]
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Arthur : /* Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea */

2023-07-03T16:16:15Z

Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea

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	Here is how these three theories might analyse some of these topics:		Here is how these three theories might analyse some of these topics:
	# ~~Changement climatique~~ :		# Climate change :
	#* ~~Réaliste~~ : ~~Le changement climatique pourrait être considéré comme un problème de sécurité à part entière~~, ~~avec des pays qui cherchent à minimiser leurs propres coûts économiques tout en maximisant les bénéfices~~.		#* Realistic: Climate change could be seen as a security issue in its own right, with countries seeking to minimise their own economic costs while maximising the benefits.
	#* ~~Libéral~~ : ~~Les accords internationaux comme l'Accord de~~ Paris ~~sont nécessaires pour faciliter la coopération et résoudre le problème du changement climatique~~. ~~Ils peuvent créer un environnement dans lequel les États sont incités à coopérer pour résoudre un problème commun~~.		#* Liberal: International agreements such as the Paris Agreement are necessary to facilitate cooperation and solve the climate change problem. They can create an environment in which states have an incentive to cooperate to solve a common problem.
	#* ~~Constructiviste~~ : ~~Les États~~, ~~les ONG et les~~ institutions ~~internationales peuvent jouer un rôle dans la~~ construction ~~sociale du changement climatique en tant que problème mondial qui nécessite une~~ action ~~collective~~.		#* Constructivist: States, NGOs and international institutions can play a role in the social construction of climate change as a global problem requiring collective action.
	# L'~~internationalisation de la monnaie chinoise~~ :		# The internationalisation of China's currency:
	#* ~~Réaliste~~ : ~~La Chine pourrait chercher à internationaliser sa monnaie pour augmenter sa puissance~~ relative ~~sur la scène internationale~~, ~~en défiant la domination du~~ dollar ~~américain~~.		#* Realistic: China could seek to internationalise its currency to increase its relative power on the international stage, challenging the dominance of the US dollar.
	#* ~~Libéral~~ : L'~~internationalisation de la monnaie chinoise pourrait être facilitée par des~~ institutions ~~internationales telles que le FMI~~. ~~Cela pourrait créer un système plus diversifié et~~ stable ~~sur le plan monétaire~~.		#* Liberal: The internationalisation of China's currency could be facilitated by international institutions such as the IMF. This could create a more diversified and stable currency system.
	#* ~~Constructiviste~~ : L'internationalisation de la monnaie chinoise pourrait être perçue comme une menace ou une opportunité en fonction de la manière dont elle est discursivement construite par les acteurs internationaux.		#* Constructivist: The internationalisation of China's currency could be seen as a threat or an opportunity depending on how it is discursively constructed by international actors.
	# ~~Investissements~~ :		# Investment :
	#* ~~Réaliste~~ : ~~Les investissements pourraient être vus comme un moyen d'accroître la puissance et l~~'influence ~~d'un État~~.		#* Realistic: Investment could be seen as a means of increasing a state's power and influence.
	#* ~~Libéral~~ : ~~Les~~ institutions ~~internationales peuvent faciliter les investissements en créant un environnement~~ stable ~~et prévisible~~, ~~et en réglementant les conflits~~.		#* Liberal: International institutions can facilitate investment by creating a stable and predictable environment, and by regulating conflicts.
	#* ~~Constructiviste~~ : ~~Les investissements peuvent être considérés comme une forme de~~ soft power, ~~façonnant les~~ relations ~~internationales par le biais de la diffusion d'idées et de valeurs culturelles~~.		#* Constructivist: Investment can be seen as a form of soft power, shaping international relations through the dissemination of ideas and cultural values.

	~~Chaque théorie offre une~~ perspective ~~unique qui peut enrichir notre compréhension de ces questions complexes~~. ~~la complexité des phénomènes internationaux fait qu'aucune théorie ne peut prétendre à une compréhension complète et univoque~~. ~~Chaque~~ perspective ~~– réaliste~~, ~~libérale ou constructiviste – apporte son propre éclairage~~, ~~révèle certaines dynamiques tout en laissant d'autres dans l'ombre~~. ~~L'utilisation de plusieurs théories peut donc aider à construire une compréhension plus riche et nuancée d'un phénomène donné~~. ~~Il est également~~ crucial ~~de reconnaître que chaque théorie~~ a ~~ses propres limites et qu'il existe toujours des aspects d'un problème ou d'un phénomène qui peuvent rester inexpliqués ou mal compris~~, ~~même avec l'~~application ~~de plusieurs~~ perspectives. ~~L'interdisciplinarité est donc essentielle pour comprendre pleinement la complexité des~~ relations ~~internationales et de la politique mondiale~~. ~~Il s'agit de combiner diverses approches théoriques~~, ~~méthodologiques et disciplinaires pour offrir une vue d'ensemble plus complète et plus nuancée des enjeux mondiaux~~.		Each theory offers a unique perspective that can enrich our understanding of these complex issues. The complexity of international phenomena means that no single theory can claim to provide a complete and univocal understanding. Each perspective - realist, liberal or constructivist - sheds its own light, revealing certain dynamics while leaving others in the dark. The use of several theories can therefore help to build a richer and more nuanced understanding of a given phenomenon. It is also crucial to recognise that each theory has its own limitations and that there are always aspects of a problem or phenomenon that may remain unexplained or poorly understood, even with the application of several perspectives. Interdisciplinarity is therefore essential if we are to fully understand the complexity of international relations and world politics. It means combining different theoretical, methodological and disciplinary approaches to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced view of global issues.

	~~Nous assistons actuellement à une~~ transformation ~~en cours de l'ordre~~ international, ~~caractérisée par un mélange d'intégration et de désintégration~~. ~~D'une part~~, ~~la Chine se positionne de plus en plus au sein du système~~ international ~~existant~~, ~~comme en témoigne son adhésion à de nombreuses~~ institutions ~~internationales~~. ~~Cela démontre une volonté d'intégration et d'adhésion aux normes et règles mondiales établies~~. ~~D'autre part~~, ~~la Chine crée de nouvelles~~ institutions, ~~comme l'Initiative~~ Belt and Road ~~et la Banque asiatique d'investissement pour l'infrastructure, ce qui pourrait être interprété comme un signe de désintégration ou~~, ~~du moins~~, ~~de remise en question de l'ordre~~ international ~~existant~~. ~~Il est~~ important ~~de souligner que ce processus est en cours et que l'~~impact ~~à long terme de ces développements est encore incertain~~. ~~Le parallélisme de ces tendances d'intégration et de désintégration révèle la complexité de la dynamique mondiale actuelle~~, ~~ainsi que l'équilibre délicat entre la coopération et la compétition sur la scène internationale~~. ~~Il souligne aussi l'~~importance ~~de surveiller de près ces évolutions pour comprendre les~~ transformations ~~futures de l'ordre mondial~~.		We are currently witnessing an ongoing transformation of the international order, characterised by a mixture of integration and disintegration. On the one hand, China is increasingly positioning itself within the existing international system, as evidenced by its membership of numerous international institutions. This demonstrates a desire to integrate and adhere to established global norms and rules. On the other hand, China is creating new institutions, such as the Belt and Road Initiative and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, which could be interpreted as a sign of disintegration, or at least a challenge to the existing international order. It is important to stress that this process is ongoing and that the long-term impact of these developments is still uncertain. The parallelism of these trends of integration and disintegration reveals the complexity of current global dynamics, as well as the delicate balance between cooperation and competition on the international scene. It also underlines the importance of keeping a close eye on these developments in order to understand future transformations in world order.

	~~Le choix de la théorie à utiliser dépend souvent de la question spécifique que l'~~on ~~cherche à comprendre~~. ~~Chaque théorie des~~ relations ~~internationales possède sa propre lentille~~, ~~mettant l'accent sur différents facteurs et mécanismes~~, ~~et peut donc offrir une explication plus convaincante pour certains phénomènes par rapport à d'autres~~. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~si l~~'on s~~'intéresse à la question de la montée en puissance de la Chine et de ses~~ implications ~~pour la sécurité régionale~~, ~~le néoréalisme avec son accent sur l'équilibre des pouvoirs pourrait fournir une~~ perspective ~~particulièrement utile~~. Si, ~~en revanche~~, ~~on examine les~~ efforts ~~internationaux pour lutter contre le changement climatique~~, ~~une approche libérale qui souligne l'~~importance ~~de la coopération internationale et des~~ institutions ~~pourrait être plus éclairante~~. ~~Enfin~~, ~~si l'on s'intéresse à la manière dont les normes internationales évoluent et sont interprétées~~, ~~le constructivisme~~, ~~qui met l'accent sur les idées~~, ~~les discours et les normes sociales~~, ~~pourrait offrir des~~ insights ~~précieux~~. ~~Il est donc essentiel de choisir la théorie la plus pertinente en fonction de la question spécifique à laquelle on s'intéresse~~. ~~Cependant~~, ~~il peut aussi être utile de prendre en compte plusieurs~~ perspectives ~~pour obtenir une compréhension plus complète et nuancée des problèmes complexes et multidimensionnels qui caractérisent les~~ relations ~~internationales~~.		The choice of which theory to use often depends on the specific issue we are trying to understand. Each international relations theory has its own lens, focusing on different factors and mechanisms, and may therefore offer a more convincing explanation for some phenomena than others. For example, if one is interested in the question of China's rise and its implications for regional security, neorealism with its emphasis on the balance of power might provide a particularly useful perspective. If, on the other hand, one is looking at international efforts to tackle climate change, a liberal approach that emphasises the importance of international cooperation and institutions might be more illuminating. Finally, if one is interested in how international norms evolve and are interpreted, constructivism, which focuses on ideas, discourses and social norms, could offer valuable insights. It is therefore essential to choose the most relevant theory according to the specific issue of interest. However, it may also be useful to consider several perspectives in order to obtain a more complete and nuanced understanding of the complex and multidimensional problems that characterise international relations.

	= Annexes =		= Annexes =

Arthur : /* Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea */

2023-07-03T16:15:41Z

Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea

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Arthur : /* Neorealism */

2023-07-03T16:14:56Z

Neorealism

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Arthur : /* Les Défis Actuels des Relations Internationales */

2023-07-03T16:12:25Z

Les Défis Actuels des Relations Internationales

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Arthur : /* Le Constructivisme */

2023-07-03T16:11:05Z

Le Constructivisme

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Arthur : /* Liberalism */

2023-07-03T16:10:32Z

Liberalism

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	The phenomenon described is often referred to as the 'free rider' problem. In the context of international relations, this refers to the tendency of one state to benefit from collective efforts without making a fair contribution. This can compromise the success of collective action, because if all states act selfishly, then the common good is not achieved. International institutions play a crucial role in overcoming this problem. By establishing common standards, facilitating coordination and monitoring compliance with obligations, they can encourage states to cooperate rather than act selfishly. For example, an international treaty can specify the obligations of each state, while monitoring and enforcement mechanisms can ensure that each state meets its commitments. In the event of non-compliance, international institutions can also provide dispute settlement mechanisms to resolve conflicts. In addition, these institutions can encourage cooperation by promoting transparency and information. By providing information on the actions and policies of states, they can help build trust and deter 'free rider' behaviour.		The phenomenon described is often referred to as the 'free rider' problem. In the context of international relations, this refers to the tendency of one state to benefit from collective efforts without making a fair contribution. This can compromise the success of collective action, because if all states act selfishly, then the common good is not achieved. International institutions play a crucial role in overcoming this problem. By establishing common standards, facilitating coordination and monitoring compliance with obligations, they can encourage states to cooperate rather than act selfishly. For example, an international treaty can specify the obligations of each state, while monitoring and enforcement mechanisms can ensure that each state meets its commitments. In the event of non-compliance, international institutions can also provide dispute settlement mechanisms to resolve conflicts. In addition, these institutions can encourage cooperation by promoting transparency and information. By providing information on the actions and policies of states, they can help build trust and deter 'free rider' behaviour.

	For Robert Keohane in ''International Institutions: Two Approaches'' published in 1988, ~~{{quote\|~~...This research program ... assumes ... rationality on the part of the actors. It begins with the premise that if there were no potential gains from agreements to be captured in world politics ... there would be no need for specific international institutions. ... Conversely, if cooperation were easy ... there would be no need for institutions to facilitate cooperation. ... It is the combination of the potential value of agreements and the dfficulty of making them that renders international regimes significant. In order to cooperate in world politics on more than a sporadic basis, human beings have to use institutions.... Even in the absence of hierarchical authority, institutions provide information (through monitoring) and stabilize expectations. They may also make decentralized enforcement feasible, for example by creating conditions under which reciprocity can operate...}}.<ref>Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions: Two Approaches, ''International Studies Quarterly'', Volume 32, Issue 4, December 1988, Pages 379-396, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/2600589</nowiki></ref>		For Robert Keohane in ''International Institutions: Two Approaches'' published in 1988, "...This research program ... assumes ... rationality on the part of the actors. It begins with the premise that if there were no potential gains from agreements to be captured in world politics ... there would be no need for specific international institutions. ... Conversely, if cooperation were easy ... there would be no need for institutions to facilitate cooperation. ... It is the combination of the potential value of agreements and the dfficulty of making them that renders international regimes significant. In order to cooperate in world politics on more than a sporadic basis, human beings have to use institutions.... Even in the absence of hierarchical authority, institutions provide information (through monitoring) and stabilize expectations. They may also make decentralized enforcement feasible, for example by creating conditions under which reciprocity can operate...".<ref>Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions: Two Approaches, ''International Studies Quarterly'', Volume 32, Issue 4, December 1988, Pages 379-396, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/2600589</nowiki></ref>

	Robert Keohane stresses the importance of international institutions in facilitating cooperation between states. He assumes that actors are rational and see potential value in international agreements. However, he also recognises that cooperation is difficult to achieve because of the challenges posed by the anarchic international system. For Keohane, international institutions play a key role in overcoming these challenges. Firstly, they provide information, notably through monitoring mechanisms, which can help states to assess the behaviour of others and develop stable expectations. This information can reduce uncertainty, promote trust and deter opportunistic behaviour. Secondly, international institutions can facilitate the decentralised application of agreements. For example, they can create favourable conditions for reciprocity, a key principle of international cooperation. According to this principle, if one state respects its commitments, others are more likely to do the same, and vice versa. By facilitating reciprocity, international institutions can encourage states to honour their commitments and cooperate on a more regular basis. However, as Keohane points out, the value and effectiveness of international institutions ultimately depend on the willingness of states to cooperate and honour their commitments. Although institutions can facilitate cooperation, they cannot guarantee it.		Robert Keohane stresses the importance of international institutions in facilitating cooperation between states. He assumes that actors are rational and see potential value in international agreements. However, he also recognises that cooperation is difficult to achieve because of the challenges posed by the anarchic international system. For Keohane, international institutions play a key role in overcoming these challenges. Firstly, they provide information, notably through monitoring mechanisms, which can help states to assess the behaviour of others and develop stable expectations. This information can reduce uncertainty, promote trust and deter opportunistic behaviour. Secondly, international institutions can facilitate the decentralised application of agreements. For example, they can create favourable conditions for reciprocity, a key principle of international cooperation. According to this principle, if one state respects its commitments, others are more likely to do the same, and vice versa. By facilitating reciprocity, international institutions can encourage states to honour their commitments and cooperate on a more regular basis. However, as Keohane points out, the value and effectiveness of international institutions ultimately depend on the willingness of states to cooperate and honour their commitments. Although institutions can facilitate cooperation, they cannot guarantee it.

Arthur : /* Le Libéralisme */

2023-07-03T16:09:50Z

Le Libéralisme

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Arthur : /* Le Néoréalisme */

2023-07-03T16:08:58Z

Le Néoréalisme

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	There is a plurality of views and theories in the field of international relations concerning the effect of internationalisation on the principle of state sovereignty. These perspectives seek to determine whether this global trend represents a substantial challenge to traditional state sovereignty. They also question whether we are witnessing a transformation in which sovereignty is gradually shared through international institutions, and whether this could lead to the emergence of a kind of global society. These points of view are varied and form the basis of the main notions of the three major theoretical paradigms of international relations.		There is a plurality of views and theories in the field of international relations concerning the effect of internationalisation on the principle of state sovereignty. These perspectives seek to determine whether this global trend represents a substantial challenge to traditional state sovereignty. They also question whether we are witnessing a transformation in which sovereignty is gradually shared through international institutions, and whether this could lead to the emergence of a kind of global society. These points of view are varied and form the basis of the main notions of the three major theoretical paradigms of international relations.

	== ~~Le Néoréalisme~~ ==		== Neorealism ==
	~~{{Article détaillé\|Le néo-réalisme structurel}}~~

	John Mearsheimer, un important ~~théoricien du néoréalisme~~, ~~a exploré en profondeur les limites des~~ institutions ~~internationales dans son~~ article ~~de 1994~~, "The False Promise of International Institutions".<ref>Mearsheimer, John J. "The false promise of international institutions." ''International Organization''. Routledge, 2017. 237-282.</ref> ~~Dans cet essai~~, Mearsheimer ~~articule le point de vue néoréaliste qui soutient que les~~ institutions ~~internationales sont essentiellement des outils au~~ service ~~des États les plus puissants~~ : "Realists... recognize that states sometimes operate through institutions. However, they believe that those rules reflect state calculations of self-interest based primarily on the international distribution of power. The most powerful states in the system create and shape institutions so that they can maintain their share of world power, or even increase it. In this view, institutions are essentially ~~‘arenas~~ for acting out power relationships.’ ...institutions largely mirror the distribution of power in the system ». ~~Il met en avant les limites des~~ institutions ~~internationales~~".		John Mearsheimer, an important theorist of neorealism, explored the limits of international institutions in depth in his 1994 article, "The False Promise of International Institutions."<ref>Mearsheimer, John J. "The false promise of international institutions." ''International Organization''. Routledge, 2017. 237-282.</ref> In this essay, Mearsheimer articulates the neorealist view that international institutions are essentially tools at the service of the most powerful states: "Realists... recognize that states sometimes operate through institutions. However, they believe that those rules reflect state calculations of self-interest based primarily on the international distribution of power. The most powerful states in the system create and shape institutions so that they can maintain their share of world power, or even increase it. In this view, institutions are essentially 'arenas for acting out power relationships.' ...institutions largely mirror the distribution of power in the system". He highlights the limitations of international institutions".

	Mearsheimer ~~admet que les États, parfois, agissent à travers des~~ institutions. ~~Cependant~~, ~~selon lui~~, ~~ces règles et ces~~ interactions ~~reflètent principalement les calculs d~~'~~intérêt personnel des États~~, ~~basés en grande partie sur la~~ distribution ~~internationale du pouvoir~~. ~~Autrement dit~~, ~~les États les plus puissants créent et façonnent les~~ institutions ~~internationales dans le but de maintenir~~, ~~voire d'augmenter~~, ~~leur part de pouvoir mondial~~. ~~Dans cette optique~~, Mearsheimer ~~considère les~~ institutions ~~internationales comme étant essentiellement des~~ "~~arènes pour jouer des~~ relations ~~de pouvoir~~". ~~Elles seraient le reflet de la~~ distribution ~~du pouvoir dans le système~~ international ~~et non des entités indépendantes capables d'influencer ou de réguler de manière efficace le comportement des États~~. ~~Cette vision offre une~~ critique ~~incisive de l'idée que les~~ institutions ~~internationales peuvent être un vecteur d'ordre mondial coopératif ou un moyen de surmonter l'anarchie fondamentale du système~~ international. ~~Au lieu de cela~~, ~~selon~~ Mearsheimer, ~~elles sont largement instrumentalisées par les États puissants pour promouvoir leurs propres intérêts~~, ~~limitant ainsi leur capacité à agir comme des facteurs équilibrants ou stabilisants dans les~~ relations ~~internationales~~.		Mearsheimer admits that states sometimes act through institutions. However, in his view, these rules and interactions mainly reflect states' calculations of self-interest, based largely on the international distribution of power. In other words, the most powerful states create and shape international institutions in order to maintain, or even increase, their share of global power. From this perspective, Mearsheimer sees international institutions as essentially "arenas for playing out power relations". They reflect the distribution of power in the international system, rather than being independent entities capable of effectively influencing or regulating the behaviour of states. This view offers an incisive critique of the idea that international institutions can be a vehicle for cooperative world order or a means of overcoming the fundamental anarchy of the international system. Instead, Mearsheimer argues, they are largely instrumentalised by powerful states to promote their own interests, limiting their ability to act as balancing or stabilising factors in international relations.

	~~Les penseurs réalistes~~, ~~bien qu'acceptant l'~~existence ~~des~~ institutions ~~internationales~~, ~~considèrent que ces dernières sont avant tout le reflet de la hiérarchie des pouvoirs mondiaux~~, ~~ou la~~ distribution ~~de puissance entre les États~~. ~~Ces~~ institutions, ~~selon la~~ perspective ~~réaliste~~, ~~restent largement sous le contrôle des États les plus puissants qui les soutiennent tant qu'elles servent leurs intérêts~~. ~~Lorsqu'elles cessent d'être utiles~~, ~~ces États puissants peuvent choisir de ne plus les respecter~~, ~~car il n'existe pas de~~ force ~~internationale contraignante~~ capable ~~d'assurer leur respect une fois que ces États n'y trouvent plus leur compte~~. ~~Ainsi~~, ~~dans l'optique réaliste~~, ~~la pertinence et l'~~influence ~~des~~ organisations ~~internationales dépendent du soutien des grandes puissances~~. ~~En revanche~~, ~~les États dominants sont capables d'utiliser ces~~ institutions ~~internationales comme des leviers pour imposer certaines normes aux États moins puissants~~. ~~Ces normes, souvent, sont celles qui favorisent les intérêts des puissances dominantes~~. ~~Ainsi~~, ~~les~~ institutions ~~internationales peuvent devenir un outil par lequel les États influents exercent leur puissance et façonnent le monde selon leurs propres intérêts~~. ~~Ainsi, l'~~impact ~~des~~ organisations ~~internationales dépend largement du soutien des grandes puissances qui se situent derrière elles~~. ~~Les institutions ne sont pas indépendantes~~, ~~mais plutôt des outils à la merci des États influents~~, ~~prêts à être utilisés pour avancer leurs~~ agendas ~~globaux~~.		Realist thinkers, while accepting the existence of international institutions, consider that they are above all a reflection of the hierarchy of world powers, or the distribution of power between states. These institutions, according to the realist perspective, remain largely under the control of the most powerful states, which support them as long as they serve their interests. When they cease to be useful, these powerful states can choose not to respect them any more, because there is no binding international force capable of ensuring that they are respected once these states are no longer satisfied with them. So, from a realist point of view, the relevance and influence of international organisations depend on the support of the major powers. On the other hand, the dominant states are able to use these international institutions as levers to impose certain standards on less powerful states. These standards are often those that favour the interests of the dominant powers. In this way, international institutions can become a tool through which influential states can exert their power and shape the world in their own interests. The impact of international organisations depends largely on the support of the major powers behind them. Institutions are not independent, but rather tools at the mercy of influential states, ready to be used to advance their global agendas.

	~~Il est observable que les États se désengagent de certaines~~ discussions ~~lorsqu'elles ne servent pas leurs intérêts~~. ~~Prenons par exemple les États-Unis qui ont choisi de ne pas participer au protocole de~~ Kyoto. ~~Cette décision était en grande partie~~ due ~~au fait que les~~ nations ~~émergentes n'étaient pas contraintes par ce cadre institutionnel~~. ~~Par conséquent~~, ~~les États-Unis anticipaient des effets négatifs et des coûts qui leur incomberaient s'ils participaient~~. ~~Ainsi~~, ~~ils ont choisi de ne pas s'engager dans ce processus~~. ~~Dans le cas de la Cour pénale internationale~~ (~~CPI~~), ~~les États-Unis ont également exprimé leur~~ opposition. ~~Leur réticence vient du refus de se soumettre à une entité supranationale qui pourrait potentiellement incriminer des citoyens américains pour des~~ crimes ~~contre l'humanité~~. ~~C'est un autre exemple illustrant comment les États puissants peuvent choisir de ne pas se conformer à des~~ institutions ~~internationales lorsqu'ils perçoivent que leur~~ participation ~~pourrait aller à l'encontre de leurs intérêts nationaux~~.		It has been observed that governments withdraw from certain discussions when they do not serve their interests. Take, for example, the United States, which chose not to participate in the Kyoto Protocol. This decision was largely due to the fact that emerging nations were not constrained by this institutional framework. As a result, the United States anticipated the negative effects and costs it would incur if it participated. As a result, it chose not to engage in this process. In the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), the United States also expressed its opposition. Their reluctance stems from a refusal to submit to a supranational entity that could potentially incriminate American citizens for crimes against humanity. This is another example of how powerful states can choose not to comply with international institutions when they perceive that their participation could run counter to their national interests.

	~~Le choix des grandes puissances de participer ou non à des~~ institutions ~~internationales repose sur une évaluation stratégique de leurs propres intérêts~~. ~~Ces intérêts peuvent être politiques~~, ~~économiques ou sécuritaires~~. ~~Cette~~ perspective ~~est en accord avec le réalisme en~~ relations ~~internationales~~, ~~qui voit les États comme des acteurs rationnels poursuivant leurs intérêts nationaux dans un environnement anarchique~~. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~un pays puissant peut choisir de participer à une~~ organisation ~~internationale si cela lui permet d'exercer son~~ influence ~~sur d'autres pays~~, ~~de façonner les règles et normes internationales à son avantage~~, ~~ou de tirer des bénéfices économiques~~. ~~En même temps~~, ~~cette~~ participation ~~peut aussi offrir un mécanisme pour résoudre les différends avec d'autres États de manière pacifique et structurée~~. ~~D'un autre côté~~, ~~si une~~ institution ~~internationale est perçue comme allant à l'encontre des intérêts d'une grande puissance~~, ~~cette dernière peut choisir de ne pas participer ou même de s'y opposer~~. ~~Cela a été illustré par les États-Unis qui ont choisi de ne pas participer au Protocole de~~ Kyoto ~~et de s'opposer à la Cour pénale internationale~~, ~~craignant que ces~~ institutions ~~ne nuisent à leurs intérêts nationaux~~. ~~Cependant~~, l'abstention ~~ou l'~~opposition ~~à des~~ institutions ~~internationales peut également avoir des conséquences~~, ~~notamment en termes d'~~image ~~internationale~~, de relations ~~diplomatiques ou de pression de la part de la communauté internationale~~. ~~Les grandes puissances doivent donc constamment évaluer les avantages et inconvénients de leur engagement dans les~~ institutions ~~internationales~~.		The choice of major powers whether or not to participate in international institutions is based on a strategic assessment of their own interests. These interests may be political, economic or security-related. This perspective is in line with realism in international relations, which sees states as rational actors pursuing their national interests in an anarchic environment. For example, a powerful country may choose to participate in an international organisation if this enables it to exert influence over other countries, to shape international rules and norms to its advantage, or to reap economic benefits. At the same time, such participation may also provide a mechanism for resolving disputes with other states in a peaceful and structured manner. On the other hand, if an international institution is perceived to run counter to the interests of a major power, the latter may choose not to participate or even to oppose it. This was illustrated by the United States, which chose not to participate in the Kyoto Protocol and to oppose the International Criminal Court, fearing that these institutions would harm its national interests. However, abstention from or opposition to international institutions can also have consequences, particularly in terms of international image, diplomatic relations or pressure from the international community. The major powers must therefore constantly weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of their involvement in international institutions.

	== Le Libéralisme ==		== Le Libéralisme ==

Arthur : /* Conclusion : Transformation du Système International */

2023-07-03T16:08:29Z

Conclusion : Transformation du Système International

← Version précédente		Version du 3 juillet 2023 à 18:08
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	The role of NGOs in the environmental field is sometimes less visible within formal international organisations. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, there are fewer international organisations with a broad environmental mandate. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), for example, has an advisory rather than a regulatory role. Secondly, environmental issues are often dealt with under specific international treaties, such as the Paris Climate Agreement, rather than through permanent international organisations. This means that the role of NGOs may lie more in influencing the formulation of these treaties, advocating for their implementation and monitoring compliance. Thirdly, many of the most pressing environmental issues are complex and require multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approaches. As a result, environmental NGOs are often active in a range of organisations and forums, from local to international, and may collaborate with actors from different sectors, such as business, academia and government. Finally, environmental NGOs can also play an important role outside formal structures, for example by raising public awareness, lobbying governments and companies, and working directly on conservation and sustainability projects on the ground. While this may not be reflected in their presence in international organisations, it in no way diminishes the importance of their contribution to global environmental governance.		The role of NGOs in the environmental field is sometimes less visible within formal international organisations. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, there are fewer international organisations with a broad environmental mandate. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), for example, has an advisory rather than a regulatory role. Secondly, environmental issues are often dealt with under specific international treaties, such as the Paris Climate Agreement, rather than through permanent international organisations. This means that the role of NGOs may lie more in influencing the formulation of these treaties, advocating for their implementation and monitoring compliance. Thirdly, many of the most pressing environmental issues are complex and require multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approaches. As a result, environmental NGOs are often active in a range of organisations and forums, from local to international, and may collaborate with actors from different sectors, such as business, academia and government. Finally, environmental NGOs can also play an important role outside formal structures, for example by raising public awareness, lobbying governments and companies, and working directly on conservation and sustainability projects on the ground. While this may not be reflected in their presence in international organisations, it in no way diminishes the importance of their contribution to global environmental governance.

	== Conclusion : Transformation ~~du Système~~ International ==		== Conclusion: Transformation of the International System ==

	[[Fichier:Lavenex_pyramide_transformation_du_système_international_2015.png\|center\|vignette]]		[[Fichier:Lavenex_pyramide_transformation_du_système_international_2015.png\|center\|vignette]]

	~~Pour résumer cette~~ section ~~sur l'~~internationalisation ~~et le système~~ international, ~~nous avons au sommet de la pyramide les~~ relations ~~intergouvernementales formelles et diplomatiques~~. ~~Il s'agit d'~~interactions ~~entre les représentants des États qui oeuvrent à développer le droit~~ international. ~~Ces dernières années~~, ~~nous avons assisté à une certaine judiciarisation de ces processus~~, ~~avec une importance croissante accordée à l'~~application ~~du droit et à la résolution des conflits par le biais de mécanismes juridiques~~. ~~En dessous de ce niveau~~, ~~nous trouvons une myriade d'~~interactions ~~transgouvernementales et transnationales~~. ~~Les~~ relations ~~transgouvernementales impliquent des acteurs étatiques qui agissent de manière plus indépendante~~, ~~en dehors des canaux diplomatiques traditionnels~~, ~~tandis que les~~ relations ~~transnationales impliquent des acteurs~~ non ~~étatiques~~, ~~tels que les~~ organisations ~~non gouvernementales et les entreprises~~. ~~Bien que ces niveaux soient présentés de manière hiérarchique~~, ~~ils ne sont pas isolés les uns des autres~~, ~~mais sont plutôt interconnectés et se chevauchent souvent~~. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~les ONG peuvent influencer les négociations intergouvernementales par le biais du~~ lobbying ~~et de la diffusion d'informations~~, ~~tandis que les décisions prises au niveau intergouvernemental peuvent à leur tour façonner les activités des acteurs transgouvernementaux et transnationaux~~. ~~Dans l'ensemble~~, ~~cette~~ structure ~~illustre la complexité et la diversité des~~ interactions ~~au sein du système~~ international ~~moderne~~.		To sum up this section on internationalisation and the international system, at the top of the pyramid are formal intergovernmental and diplomatic relations. These are interactions between representatives of states working to develop international law. In recent years, we have witnessed a certain judicialisation of these processes, with increasing emphasis on the application of the law and the resolution of conflicts through legal mechanisms. Below this level, we find a myriad of transgovernmental and transnational interactions. Transgovernmental relations involve state actors acting more independently, outside traditional diplomatic channels, while transnational relations involve non-state actors, such as non-governmental organisations and corporations. Although these levels are presented hierarchically, they are not isolated from each other, but rather are interconnected and often overlap. For example, NGOs can influence intergovernmental negotiations through lobbying and the dissemination of information, while decisions taken at intergovernmental level can in turn shape the activities of transgovernmental and transnational actors. Overall, this structure illustrates the complexity and diversity of interactions within the modern international system.

	~~Pour comprendre pleinement le système~~ international ~~contemporain~~, ~~il est impératif de ne pas se concentrer uniquement sur les~~ relations ~~interétatiques formelles~~, ~~mais aussi de prendre en compte les~~ relations ~~transgouvernementales et transnationales~~. ~~Les~~ relations ~~transgouvernementales se réfèrent à des~~ interactions ~~entre des parties d'États différents~~, ~~souvent au niveau des bureaucraties~~, ~~qui agissent de manière plus indépendante de leurs dirigeants politiques centraux~~. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~des régulateurs~~, ~~des fonctionnaires ou des agences gouvernementales de différents pays peuvent travailler ensemble de manière informelle pour résoudre des problèmes communs ou coordonner des politiques~~. ~~De même~~, ~~les relations transnationales se réfèrent aux~~ interactions ~~entre des entités~~ non ~~gouvernementales qui opèrent à travers les frontières nationales~~, ~~telles que les entreprises multinationales~~, ~~les~~ organisations ~~non gouvernementales~~, ~~les groupes de la société civile et même les individus~~. ~~Ces deux~~ types ~~de relations jouent un rôle de plus en plus~~ important ~~dans la gouvernance internationale~~, ~~et sont souvent impliqués dans des domaines clés tels que les normes mondiales~~, la protection ~~de l'environnement~~, ~~les droits de l'homme~~, ~~et plus encore~~. ~~Par conséquent~~, ~~pour comprendre le fonctionnement du système~~ international ~~contemporain~~, ~~nous devons élargir notre regard pour inclure ces formes d'interactions en plus des~~ relations ~~traditionnelles entre États~~.		To fully understand the contemporary international system, it is imperative not only to focus on formal interstate relations, but also to take into account transgovernmental and transnational relations. Transgovernmental relations refer to interactions between parts of different states, often at the level of bureaucracies, which act more independently of their central political leaders. For example, regulators, civil servants or government agencies from different countries may work together informally to solve common problems or coordinate policies. Similarly, transnational relationships refer to interactions between non-governmental entities that operate across national borders, such as multinational companies, non-governmental organisations, civil society groups and even individuals. Both types of relationships play an increasingly important role in international governance, and are often involved in key areas such as global standards, environmental protection, human rights, and more. Therefore, to understand how the contemporary international system works, we need to broaden our gaze to include these forms of interaction in addition to traditional relations between states.

	= ~~Les Trois~~ Perspectives ~~Théoriques Majeures sur le Système~~ International =		= The Three Major Theoretical Perspectives on the International System =
	~~Il existe une pluralité d'opinions et de théories dans le domaine des~~ relations ~~internationales concernant l'effet de l'~~internationalisation ~~sur le principe de souveraineté des États~~. ~~Ces~~ perspectives ~~cherchent à déterminer si cette tendance mondiale représente un défi substantiel pour la souveraineté traditionnelle des États~~. ~~Elles questionnent également si nous assistons à une~~ transformation ~~dans laquelle la souveraineté est graduellement partagée à travers les~~ institutions ~~internationales~~, ~~et si cela pourrait conduire à l'émergence d'une sorte de société globale~~. ~~Ces~~ points ~~de vue sont variés et constituent le fondement des principales~~ notions ~~des trois grands paradigmes théoriques des~~ relations ~~internationales~~.		There is a plurality of views and theories in the field of international relations concerning the effect of internationalisation on the principle of state sovereignty. These perspectives seek to determine whether this global trend represents a substantial challenge to traditional state sovereignty. They also question whether we are witnessing a transformation in which sovereignty is gradually shared through international institutions, and whether this could lead to the emergence of a kind of global society. These points of view are varied and form the basis of the main notions of the three major theoretical paradigms of international relations.

	== Le Néoréalisme ==		== Le Néoréalisme ==

Introduction to the sub-discipline of international relations - Historique des versions

Arthur le 7 juillet 2023 à 09:49

Arthur : /* Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea */

Arthur : /* Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea */

Arthur : /* Neorealism */

Arthur : /* Les Défis Actuels des Relations Internationales */

Arthur : /* Le Constructivisme */

Arthur : /* Liberalism */

Arthur : /* Le Libéralisme */

Arthur : /* Le Néoréalisme */

Arthur : /* Conclusion : Transformation du Système International */

Arthur : /* Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea */

Arthur : /* Case study: The issues surrounding the South China Sea */

Arthur : /* Neorealism */

Arthur : /* Les Défis Actuels des Relations Internationales */

Arthur : /* Le Constructivisme */

Arthur : /* Liberalism */

Arthur : /* Le Libéralisme */

Arthur : /* Le Néoréalisme */

Arthur : /* Conclusion : Transformation du Système International */