Arthur : /* 霍乱疫情 */

2023-12-01T14:09:21Z

霍乱疫情

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	~~The great epidemics that struck France and other parts of Europe after the revolutions of~~ 1830 ~~and~~ 1848 took place against a backdrop of profound political and social upheaval. These devastating diseases were often perceived by the underprivileged classes as scourges exacerbated, or even provoked, by the miserable living conditions in which they were forced to live, often close to urban centres undergoing rapid expansion and industrialisation. In such a climate, it is not surprising that the suspicion and anger of the working classes was directed at the bourgeoisie, which was accused of negligence and even malice. Conspiracy theories such as the accusation that the bourgeoisie sought to "~~poison~~" ~~or suppress~~ "~~popular fury~~" through disease resonated with a population desperate for explanations for its suffering. In Russia, during the reign of the Tsar, demonstrations triggered by the distress caused by epidemics were put down by the army. These events reflect the tendency of the authorities of the time to respond to social unrest with force, often without addressing the root causes of discontent, such as poverty, health insecurity and lack of access to basic services. These epidemics highlighted the links between health conditions and social and political structures. They have shown that public health problems cannot be dissociated from people's living conditions, particularly those of the poorest classes. Faced with these health crises, pressure mounted on governments to improve living conditions, invest in health infrastructure and implement more effective public health policies. These periods of epidemics therefore also played a catalytic role in the evolution of political and social thought, underlining the need for greater equality and for governments to take better care of their citizens.		1830 年和 1848 年革命后，法国和欧洲其他地区在政治和社会剧烈动荡的背景下爆发了严重的流行病。这些毁灭性的疾病往往被底层阶级视为灾祸，他们被迫生活在悲惨的生活环境中，而且往往靠近正在快速扩张和工业化的城市中心，这种生活环境加剧甚至引发了这些疾病。在这种氛围下，工人阶级的怀疑和愤怒指向资产阶级就不足为奇了，他们指责资产阶级玩忽职守，甚至是恶意中伤。一些阴谋论，如指责资产阶级试图通过疾病来 "毒害 "或压制 "民众的愤怒"，在急于为自己的苦难寻求解释的民众中引起了共鸣。在沙皇统治时期的俄国，军队镇压了由流行病引发的示威游行。这些事件反映了当时当局以武力应对社会动荡的倾向，而往往没有解决不满的根源，如贫困、健康无保障和缺乏基本服务。这些流行病凸显了健康状况与社会和政治结构之间的联系。它们表明，公共卫生问题与人们的生活条件，特别是最贫困阶层的生活条件是分不开的。面对这些卫生危机，各国政府面临着改善生活条件、投资卫生基础设施和实施更有效的公共卫生政策的压力。因此，这些流行病时期也对政治和社会思想的演变起到了催化作用，强调了更加平等和政府更好地照顾公民的必要性。

	~~Nineteenth~~-century doctors were often at the heart of health crises, acting as figures of trust and knowledge. They were seen as pillars of the community, not least because of their commitment to the sick and their scientific training, acquired in higher education establishments. These health professionals had great influence and their advice was generally respected by the population. Before Louis Pasteur revolutionised medicine with his germ theory in 1885, understanding of infectious diseases was very limited. Doctors of the time were unaware of the existence of viruses and bacteria as pathogens. Despite this, they were not devoid of logic or method in their practice. When faced with diseases such as cholera, doctors used the knowledge and techniques available at the time. For example, they carefully observed the evolution of symptoms and adapted their treatment accordingly. They tried to warm patients during the "~~cold~~" ~~phase of cholera, characterised by cold, bluish skin due to dehydration and reduced blood circulation. They also tried to fortify the body before the onset of the~~ "~~last phase~~" of the disease, often marked by extreme weakness, which could lead to death. Physicians also used methods such as bloodletting and purging, which were based on medical theories of the time but are now considered ineffective or even harmful. However, despite the limitations of their practice, their dedication to treating patients and rigorously observing the effects of their treatments testified to their desire to combat disease with the tools at their disposal. The empirical approach of doctors of this era contributed to the accumulation of medical knowledge, which was subsequently transformed and refined with the advent of microbiology and other modern medical sciences.		十九世纪的医生往往处于健康危机的中心，是信任和知识的代表。他们被视为社会的支柱，主要是因为他们对病人的承诺以及在高等教育机构接受的科学培训。这些卫生专业人员具有巨大的影响力，他们的建议普遍受到民众的尊重。在路易-巴斯德（Louis Pasteur）于 1885 年用他的细菌理论彻底改变医学之前，人们对传染病的了解非常有限。当时的医生并不知道病毒和细菌作为病原体的存在。尽管如此，他们在实践中并不缺乏逻辑和方法。在面对霍乱等疾病时，医生们运用了当时的知识和技术。例如，他们仔细观察症状的演变，并据此调整治疗方法。在霍乱的 "寒冷 "阶段，由于脱水和血液循环减弱，病人的皮肤发冷、发青，医生会设法给病人取暖。他们还试图在疾病的 "最后阶段 "到来之前增强体质，"最后阶段 "的特征通常是极度虚弱，可能导致死亡。医生们还使用放血和清肠等方法，这些方法以当时的医学理论为基础，但现在被认为是无效甚至有害的。然而，尽管他们的做法有局限性，但他们全心全意地为病人治疗，并严格观察治疗效果，这证明了他们希望利用所掌握的工具与疾病作斗争。这个时代医生们的经验主义方法促进了医学知识的积累，随后随着微生物学和其他现代医学科学的出现，医学知识得到了变革和完善。

	~~Georges~~-Eugène Haussmann, known as Baron Haussmann, orchestrated a radical transformation of Paris during the Second Empire, under the reign of Napoleon III. His task was to remedy the pressing problems of the French capital, which was suffering from extreme overcrowding, deplorable sanitary conditions and a tangle of alleyways dating back to the Middle Ages that no longer met the needs of the modern city. Haussmann's strategy for revitalising Paris was comprehensive. He began by taking measures to clean up the city. Before his reforms, Paris struggled with plagues such as cholera, exacerbated by narrow streets and a poor sewage system. He introduced an innovative sewage system that greatly improved public health. Haussmann then focused on improving infrastructure by establishing a network of wide avenues and boulevards. These new thoroughfares were not just aesthetically pleasing but functional, improving the circulation of air and light and making it easier to get around. At the same time, Haussmann rethought the city's urban planning. He created harmonious spaces with parks, squares and alignments of facades, giving Paris the characteristic appearance we know today. However, this process had major social repercussions, notably the displacement of the poorest populations to the outskirts. The renovation work led to the destruction of many small businesses and precarious dwellings, forcing the poorer classes to move to the suburbs. These changes provoked mixed reactions among Parisians at the time. While the bourgeoisie might have feared social unrest and viewed with apprehension the presence of what they saw as the "~~dangerous classes~~", Haussmann's ambition was also to make the city more attractive, safer and better adapted to the times. Nevertheless, the cost and social consequences of Haussmann's work were a source of controversy and intense political debate.		乔治-尤金-奥斯曼（Georges-Eugène Haussmann），人称奥斯曼男爵（Baron Haussmann），在拿破仑三世统治下的第二帝国时期，策划了巴黎的彻底变革。他的任务是解决法国首都的紧迫问题，巴黎当时极度拥挤，卫生条件极差，小巷纵横交错，可以追溯到中世纪，已无法满足现代城市的需求。奥斯曼振兴巴黎的战略是全面的。他首先采取措施清理城市。在他进行改革之前，巴黎一直在霍乱等瘟疫中挣扎，狭窄的街道和糟糕的下水道系统加剧了这一问题。他引入了创新的污水处理系统，大大改善了公共卫生。随后，奥斯曼将重点放在改善基础设施上，建立了宽阔的大道和林荫大道网络。这些新的大道不仅美观，而且实用，改善了空气和光线的流通，使人们出行更加方便。与此同时，奥斯曼对城市规划进行了重新思考。他通过公园、广场和外墙排列创造了和谐的空间，使巴黎呈现出我们今天所熟知的特色风貌。然而，这一过程也产生了重大的社会影响，尤其是最贫困的人口被迁移到郊区。改造工程导致许多小企业和危房被毁，贫困阶层被迫迁往郊区。这些变化在当时的巴黎人中引起了不同的反应。资产阶级可能担心社会动荡，对他们眼中的 "危险阶层 "的存在感到忧虑，但奥斯曼的雄心壮志也是为了让城市更有吸引力、更安全、更适应时代。然而，奥斯曼工程的成本和社会后果却引起了争议和激烈的政治辩论。

	= ~~The "social question"~~ =		= 社会问题 =

	During the 19th century, with the rise of industrial capitalism, social structures underwent radical changes, replacing the old hierarchy based on nobility and blood with one based on social status and wealth. A new bourgeois elite emerged, made up of individuals who, having succeeded in the business world, acquired the wealth and social credit deemed necessary to govern the country. This elite represented a minority who, for a time, held a monopoly on the right to vote, being considered the most capable of taking decisions for the good of the nation. The workers, on the other hand, were often seen in a paternalistic light, as children incapable of managing their own affairs or resisting the temptations of drunkenness and other vices. This view was reinforced by the moral and social theories of the time, which emphasised temperance and individual responsibility. Fear of cholera, a dreadful and poorly understood disease, fuelled a range of popular beliefs, including the idea that stress or anger could induce illness. This belief contributed to a relative calm among the working classes, who were wary of strong emotions and their potential to cause plagues. In the absence of a scientific understanding of the causes of such illnesses, theories abounded, some of them based on myth or superstition. In this environment, the bourgeoisie developed a form of paranoia about working-class suburbs. The urban peripheries, often overcrowded and unhealthy, were seen as hotbeds of disease and disorder, threatening the stability and cleanliness of the more sanitised urban centres. This fear was accentuated by the contrast between the living conditions of the bourgeois elite and those of the workers, and by the perceived threat to the established order posed by popular gatherings and revolts.		19 世纪，随着工业资本主义的兴起，社会结构发生了翻天覆地的变化，以社会地位和财富为基础的等级制度取代了以贵族和血缘为基础的旧等级制度。一个新的资产阶级精英阶层出现了，他们在商界取得成功后，获得了治理国家所需的财富和社会信用。这个精英阶层代表着少数人，他们一度垄断了选举权，被认为最有能力做出有利于国家的决定。另一方面，工人往往被看作是没有能力管理自己事务或抵御酗酒和其他恶习诱惑的孩子。当时强调节制和个人责任的道德和社会理论强化了这种观点。霍乱是一种可怕的疾病，人们对这种疾病知之甚少，对霍乱的恐惧助长了一系列流行观念，包括认为压力或愤怒会诱发疾病。这种观念使得工人阶级相对平静，他们对强烈的情绪及其引发瘟疫的可能性保持警惕。由于缺乏对此类疾病病因的科学认识，各种理论层出不穷，其中一些理论建立在神话或迷信的基础上。在这种环境下，资产阶级对郊区的工人阶级产生了一种偏执。城市边缘地区往往过于拥挤和不健康，被视为疾病和混乱的温床，威胁着卫生条件较好的城市中心的稳定和清洁。资产阶级精英的生活条件与工人的生活条件之间的反差，以及民众集会和起义对既定秩序的威胁，都加剧了这种恐惧。

	Buret was a keen observer of the living conditions of the working class in the 19th century, and his analysis reflects the social anxieties and criticisms of an era marked by the Industrial Revolution and rapid urbanisation: "~~If you dare to enter the cursed districts where~~ [~~the working-class population] live, you will see at every step men and women withered by vice and misery, half-naked children rotting in filth and suffocating in dayless, airless rooms~~. There, in the home of civilisation, you will meet thousands of men who, by dint of stupefaction, have fallen back into the savage life; there, finally, you will see misery in such a horrible aspect that it will inspire more disgust than pity, and that you will be tempted to see it as the just punishment for a crime [...]. Isolated from the nation, placed outside the social and political community, alone with their needs and their miseries, they are agitating to get out of this frightening solitude, and, like the barbarians to whom they have been compared, they may be plotting an invasion".		布雷特对 19 世纪工人阶级的生活条件有着敏锐的观察力，他的分析反映了以工业革命和快速城市化为标志的时代的社会焦虑和批判：他的分析反映了以工业革命和快速城市化为标志的那个时代的社会焦虑和批判："如果你敢于进入（工人阶级）居住的受诅咒的地区，你会看到每一步都有男人和女人因罪恶和苦难而枯萎，半裸的孩子在肮脏的环境中腐烂，在没有白天和空气的房间里窒息。在那里，在文明的家园里，你会遇到成千上万的人，他们由于神志不清，又回到了野蛮人的生活中；最后，在那里，你会看到悲惨的景象，这种景象是如此可怕，以至于它所引起的厌恶多于怜悯，你会忍不住把它看作是对罪行的公正惩罚[......]。他们孤立于国家之外，置身于社会和政治共同体之外，独自面对自己的需求和苦难，他们正在躁动不安地想要摆脱这种可怕的孤独，就像他们被比作的野蛮人一样，他们可能正在密谋入侵"。

	The strength of this quotation lies in its graphic and emotional depiction of poverty and human degradation in the working-class districts of industrial cities. Buret uses shocking imagery to elicit a reaction from the reader, depicting scenes of degradation that stand in stark contrast to the ideal of progress and civilisation held by the times. By describing working-class neighbourhoods as "~~cursed~~" ~~and evoking images of men and women~~ "~~withered by vice and misery~~"~~, he draws attention to the inhuman conditions created by the economic system of the time. The reference to~~ "~~half~~-~~naked children rotting in the dirt~~" ~~is particularly poignant, reflecting a cruel social reality in which the most vulnerable, children, were the first victims of industrialisation. The reference to~~ "~~dayless, airless rooms~~" is reminiscent of the insalubrious, overcrowded dwellings in which working-class families were crammed. Buret also highlights the isolation and exclusion of workers from the political and social community, suggesting that, deprived of recognition and rights, they could become a subversive force, compared to "~~barbarians~~" ~~plotting an~~ "~~invasion~~". This metaphor of invasion suggests a fear of workers' revolt among the ruling classes, who feared that the distress and agitation of the workers would turn into a threat to the social and economic order. In its historical context, this quotation illustrates the deep social tensions of the 19th century and offers a scathing commentary on the human consequences of industrial modernity. It invites reflection on the need for social integration and political reform, recognising that economic progress cannot be disconnected from the well-being and dignity of all members of society.		这段引文的力量在于它生动而感性地描绘了工业城市工人阶级区的贫穷和人性的堕落。布莱特利用令人震惊的意象引起读者的反应，描绘了与时代进步和文明理想形成鲜明对比的堕落场景。他将工人阶级居住区描述为 "受诅咒的"，唤起人们对 "被罪恶和苦难折磨得枯萎 "的男人和女人的想象，从而引起人们对当时的经济制度所造成的非人状况的关注。其中提到的 "半裸的儿童在泥土中腐烂 "尤为凄惨，反映了当时残酷的社会现实，即最脆弱的群体--儿童--是工业化的首当其冲的受害者。提到 "没有白天、没有空气的房间"，不禁让人联想到工人阶级家庭拥挤不堪的恶劣居住环境。Buret 还强调了工人在政治和社会群体中的孤立和排斥，暗示他们在得不到承认和权利的情况下，可能会成为一股颠覆力量，被比作策划 "入侵 "的 "野蛮人"。这种 "入侵 "的隐喻暗示了统治阶级对工人反抗的恐惧，他们担心工人的苦恼和骚动会变成对社会和经济秩序的威胁。从历史背景来看，这段引文说明了 19 世纪深刻的社会矛盾，并对工业现代化给人类带来的后果进行了尖锐的评论。它促使人们反思社会融合和政治改革的必要性，认识到经济进步不能与社会所有成员的福祉和尊严脱节。

	= ~~Annexes~~ =		= 附录 =

	= ~~References~~ =		= 参考资料 =
	<references/>		<references/>

Arthur : /* 营养不良和工资低 */

2023-12-01T14:08:28Z

营养不良和工资低

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Arthur : /* 两种人口发展类型 */

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两种人口发展类型

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Arthur : Page créée avec « 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève][http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français] {{Translations | fr = Les coûts sociaux de la révolution industrielle | es = Los costes sociales de la Revolución Industrial | it = I costi sociali della... »

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Page créée avec « 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编<ref>[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève]</ref><ref>[http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français]</ref> {{Translations | fr = Les coûts sociaux de la révolution industrielle | es = Los costes sociales de la Revolución Industrial | it = I costi sociali della... »

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工业革命的社会成本 - Historique des versions

Arthur : /* 霍乱疫情 */

Arthur : /* 营养不良和工资低 */

Arthur : /* 两种人口发展类型 */

Arthur le 1 décembre 2023 à 14:06

Arthur : /* 霍乱疫情 */

Arthur : /* 营养不良和工资低 */

Arthur : /* 两种人口发展类型 */