全球移民体系的形成 - Historique des versions

Arthur : /* Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies */

2023-12-04T14:06:55Z

Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies

← Version précédente		Version du 4 décembre 2023 à 16:06
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	十九世纪末二十世纪初，美国社会流动性下降，许多人更难向上流动。在这一时期，某些美国神话出现并广为流传，特别是 "白手起家的人 "和 "牛仔"，这些神话反映了个人成功和独立的理想。然而，这些神话所反映的历史和社会现实往往比流行的表述更为复杂和多样。白手起家的神话颂扬了个人通过辛勤劳动和聪明才智在社会和经济上崛起的能力，在这一时期广受欢迎。企业家和实业家白手起家、发家致富、生意兴隆的故事强化了这一神话。然而，这种说法往往掩盖了结构性障碍和不平等，使大多数人，尤其是移民、少数民族和工人阶级难以实现这种向上流动。就牛仔神话而言，牛仔是美国西部英雄、孤独和无畏的形象，这一形象在很大程度上是白人和男性化的。然而，历史现实表明，牛仔在种族和民族方面其实非常多样化。许多人是黑人、亚裔、西班牙裔和美洲原住民。这种多样性反映了美国边疆的多元文化性质，尽管这一现实常常被主流文化叙事和表述所掩盖。在美国历史上的这一时期，出现了关于个人成就和冒险的强大神话，这些神话既是灵感的源泉，有时也掩盖了更为复杂的社会和经济现实。社会流动性的下降和经济上升难度的增加与这些理想化的叙事形成了鲜明对比，揭示了美国理想与许多美国公民和移民的生活经历之间的紧张关系。		十九世纪末二十世纪初，美国社会流动性下降，许多人更难向上流动。在这一时期，某些美国神话出现并广为流传，特别是 "白手起家的人 "和 "牛仔"，这些神话反映了个人成功和独立的理想。然而，这些神话所反映的历史和社会现实往往比流行的表述更为复杂和多样。白手起家的神话颂扬了个人通过辛勤劳动和聪明才智在社会和经济上崛起的能力，在这一时期广受欢迎。企业家和实业家白手起家、发家致富、生意兴隆的故事强化了这一神话。然而，这种说法往往掩盖了结构性障碍和不平等，使大多数人，尤其是移民、少数民族和工人阶级难以实现这种向上流动。就牛仔神话而言，牛仔是美国西部英雄、孤独和无畏的形象，这一形象在很大程度上是白人和男性化的。然而，历史现实表明，牛仔在种族和民族方面其实非常多样化。许多人是黑人、亚裔、西班牙裔和美洲原住民。这种多样性反映了美国边疆的多元文化性质，尽管这一现实常常被主流文化叙事和表述所掩盖。在美国历史上的这一时期，出现了关于个人成就和冒险的强大神话，这些神话既是灵感的源泉，有时也掩盖了更为复杂的社会和经济现实。社会流动性的下降和经济上升难度的增加与这些理想化的叙事形成了鲜明对比，揭示了美国理想与许多美国公民和移民的生活经历之间的紧张关系。

	== ~~Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies~~ ==		== 日益严重的仇外心理和移民限制政策 ==
	美国的仇外心理和边境封锁分两个不同的阶段发展，反映了 19 世纪末和 20 世纪初美国社会的紧张局势和变化。		美国的仇外心理和边境封锁分两个不同的阶段发展，反映了 19 世纪末和 20 世纪初美国社会的紧张局势和变化。

Arthur : /* 工业化对美国社会的影响 */

2023-12-04T14:05:50Z

工业化对美国社会的影响

← Version précédente		Version du 4 décembre 2023 à 16:05
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	=== 工业化对美国社会的影响 ===		=== 工业化对美国社会的影响 ===
	At the end of the nineteenth century, America underwent significant changes in its economic and social landscape, due in part to the end of the Wild West conquest and rapid industrialisation. The closing of the western frontier, often symbolised by the 1890 census declaring the end of the American 'frontier', marked a turning point in the opportunities available to immigrants and American citizens.		十九世纪末，美国的经济和社会面貌发生了重大变化，部分原因是狂野西部征服的结束和快速工业化。1890 年的人口普查宣布了美国 "边疆 "的结束，这通常象征着西部边疆的关闭，标志着移民和美国公民机会的转折点。

	For decades, westward migration had been a route for many Americans and immigrants to become landowners. This westward expansion, although tragically conflictive and devastating for the indigenous populations, was seen as an opportunity for prosperity and individual success, symbolised by access to land ownership. However, with the effective end of this expansion, the opportunities for owning land and establishing oneself as an independent farmer diminished considerably. At the same time, the United States underwent rapid industrialisation, with the development of large factories and the growing need for labour in urban areas. Immigrants arriving at this time therefore found themselves in a different situation to previous generations. Instead of turning to agriculture and land reclamation, they turned to industrial jobs, becoming employees in factories often characterised by difficult working conditions, low wages and long hours.		几十年来，向西移民一直是许多美国人和移民成为土地所有者的途径。这种西进扩张虽然对土著居民造成了悲剧性的冲突和破坏，但却被视为繁荣和个人成功的机会，其象征就是获得土地所有权。然而，随着这种扩张的有效结束，拥有土地和成为独立农民的机会大大减少。与此同时，美国经历了快速的工业化进程，大型工厂不断发展，城市地区对劳动力的需求日益增长。因此，此时到来的移民发现自己的处境与前几代人不同。他们不再从事农业和土地开垦，而是转而从事工业工作，成为工厂的雇员，而工厂的工作条件往往十分艰苦，工资低，工时长。

	This transition had several implications. Firstly, it meant a shift in the American dream from land ownership to industrial employment. Secondly, the influx of labour helped to keep wages low, creating difficult economic conditions for many workers, both immigrants and native-born. Thirdly, it reinforced the class divide, as the ability to own land, a symbol of success and independence, became less and less accessible. The end of the Wild West conquest and industrialisation marked a major period of transition in American history, redefining the opportunities and challenges facing immigrants and citizens alike. These changes also helped to shape the country's socio-economic structure, with repercussions that were felt well beyond this period.		这一转变产生了若干影响。首先，它意味着美国梦从土地所有权向工业就业的转变。其次，大量劳动力的涌入导致工资持续走低，为许多工人（包括移民和本地出生的工人）创造了艰难的经济条件。第三，它强化了阶级分化，因为拥有土地这一成功和独立的象征变得越来越难以获得。狂野西部征服和工业化的结束标志着美国历史上一个重要的转型期，重新定义了移民和公民所面临的机遇和挑战。这些变化也帮助塑造了美国的社会经济结构，其影响远远超出了这一时期。

	In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the United States experienced a decline in social fluidity, making upward mobility more difficult for many. This period saw the emergence and popularisation of certain American myths, notably that of the self-made man and the cowboy, which reflected the ideal of individual success and independence. However, the historical and social reality of these myths was often more complex and diverse than popular representations suggest. The myth of the self-made man, which celebrates an individual's ability to rise socially and economically through hard work and ingenuity, gained popularity during this period. This myth was reinforced by stories of entrepreneurs and industrialists who, starting from nothing, built up fortunes and prosperous businesses. However, this narrative often masked the structural barriers and inequalities that made such upward mobility difficult for the majority of people, particularly immigrants, ethnic minorities and the working classes. As far as the cowboy myth is concerned, the popular image of the cowboy as a heroic, solitary and fearless figure of the American West was largely white and masculinised. Nevertheless, historical reality shows that cowboys were in fact very diverse racially and ethnically. Many were black, Asian, Hispanic and Native American. This diversity reflects the multicultural nature of the American frontier, although this reality has frequently been obscured in dominant cultural narratives and representations. This period in American history saw the emergence of powerful myths about individual achievement and adventure, which were both a source of inspiration and, at times, a veil over more complex social and economic realities. Declining social mobility and increasing difficulties of economic ascent contrasted with these idealised narratives, revealing the tensions between the American ideal and the lived experiences of many citizens and immigrants to the United States.		十九世纪末二十世纪初，美国社会流动性下降，许多人更难向上流动。在这一时期，某些美国神话出现并广为流传，特别是 "白手起家的人 "和 "牛仔"，这些神话反映了个人成功和独立的理想。然而，这些神话所反映的历史和社会现实往往比流行的表述更为复杂和多样。白手起家的神话颂扬了个人通过辛勤劳动和聪明才智在社会和经济上崛起的能力，在这一时期广受欢迎。企业家和实业家白手起家、发家致富、生意兴隆的故事强化了这一神话。然而，这种说法往往掩盖了结构性障碍和不平等，使大多数人，尤其是移民、少数民族和工人阶级难以实现这种向上流动。就牛仔神话而言，牛仔是美国西部英雄、孤独和无畏的形象，这一形象在很大程度上是白人和男性化的。然而，历史现实表明，牛仔在种族和民族方面其实非常多样化。许多人是黑人、亚裔、西班牙裔和美洲原住民。这种多样性反映了美国边疆的多元文化性质，尽管这一现实常常被主流文化叙事和表述所掩盖。在美国历史上的这一时期，出现了关于个人成就和冒险的强大神话，这些神话既是灵感的源泉，有时也掩盖了更为复杂的社会和经济现实。社会流动性的下降和经济上升难度的增加与这些理想化的叙事形成了鲜明对比，揭示了美国理想与许多美国公民和移民的生活经历之间的紧张关系。

	== Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies ==		== Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies ==
	Xenophobia and border closures in the United States developed in two distinct phases, reflecting the tensions and changes in American society at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth.		美国的仇外心理和边境封锁分两个不同的阶段发展，反映了 19 世纪末和 20 世纪初美国社会的紧张局势和变化。

	~~The period from the end of the 19th century (1890~~ - 1900) was marked by a rise in xenophobia, largely due to the massive arrival of new wave immigrants, particularly from Italy, Russia and other Eastern and Southern European countries. These immigrants, often Catholic or Jewish, differed culturally and religiously from the predominantly Protestant populations of Anglo-Saxon and Germanic origin. Their arrival caused concern among some sections of the American population, who feared that these new arrivals would not be able to assimilate or that they would threaten jobs and economic stability. This period saw the emergence of nativist movements and restrictive laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which aimed to limit the immigration of certain groups. The end of the First World War marked a second phase of xenophobia and border closures. This period was characterised by an intensification of anti-~~immigrant sentiment, exacerbated by post-war fears of political radicalism (such as communism and anarchism) and an economic recession. The~~ "~~Red Scare~~" of 1919-1920, a period of intense fear of communism in the United States, was often associated with immigrants, particularly those from Eastern Europe. In response to these fears, the United States passed increasingly restrictive immigration laws, such as the Quota Acts of 1921 ~~and~~ 1924~~, which introduced strict quotas based on national origins and significantly reduced immigration from many countries.~~		19 世纪末（1890 - 1900 年）仇外情绪高涨，这主要是由于新移民潮的大规模到来，特别是来自意大利、俄罗斯和其他东欧和南欧国家的移民。这些移民通常是天主教徒或犹太人，在文化和宗教上与以新教徒为主的盎格鲁-撒克逊人和日耳曼人不同。他们的到来引起了美国部分民众的担忧，他们担心这些新移民无法融入社会，或者会威胁到就业和经济稳定。这一时期出现了本土主义运动和限制性法律，如 1882 年的《排华法案》，旨在限制某些群体的移民。第一次世界大战的结束标志着第二阶段的排外主义和边境封锁。这一时期的特点是反移民情绪加剧，而战后对政治激进主义（如共产主义和无政府主义）和经济衰退的恐惧又加剧了这种情绪。1919-1920 年的 "红色恐慌 "是美国对共产主义的强烈恐惧时期，这往往与移民，尤其是来自东欧的移民有关。为了应对这些恐慌，美国通过了限制性越来越强的移民法，如 1921 年和 1924 年的《配额法》，根据民族血统实行严格的配额，大大减少了来自许多国家的移民。

	These two periods reflect the tensions and challenges faced by the United States in integrating successive waves of immigrants into a rapidly changing society. The xenophobia and restrictive policies of the time had a lasting impact on the US immigration landscape, shaping both the perceptions and experiences of immigrants and US migration policies for decades.		这两个时期反映了美国在将一波又一波的移民融入快速变化的社会时所面临的紧张和挑战。当时的排外主义和限制性政策对美国移民格局产生了持久的影响，数十年来影响着移民的观念和经历以及美国的移民政策。

	During the first period of xenophobia in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century, specific racism targeting Asians and African-Americans was noticeable. This racism was partly fuelled by the fear that whites would become a minority in the face of a perceived increase in the Asian and black population. This feeling was reinforced by demographic changes, notably the decline in the birth rate from 1875 onwards, which was more pronounced among affluent whites than among the often economically disadvantaged black and Asian communities. This fear of being swamped by non-white populations led to discriminatory policies and racial laws. For example, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was one of the first and most significant of these laws, banning the immigration of Chinese workers. It set a precedent for further discriminatory legislation against Asians.		在十九世纪末美国的第一个排外主义时期，针对亚裔和非裔美国人的特定种族主义十分明显。这种种族主义的部分原因是，人们担心面对亚裔和黑人人口的增长，白人将成为少数群体。人口结构的变化加剧了这种担忧，特别是 1875 年以来出生率的下降，这种下降在富裕的白人中比在经济上往往处于劣势的黑人和亚裔群体中更为明显。这种对被非白人人口淹没的恐惧导致了歧视性政策和种族法律的出台。例如，1882 年的《排华法案》就是这些法律中最早也是最重要的一部，它禁止华工移民。它为进一步针对亚洲人的歧视性立法开创了先例。

	~~Japan's victory over Russia in the Russo~~-Japanese War of 1905 exacerbated these fears in the United States, fuelling concerns about the 'rise' of Asia and a possible threat to Western supremacy. This perception led to increased mistrust of Japanese immigrants and the establishment of immigration quotas and restrictions specifically targeting Asians. These policies reflected and reinforced racist and xenophobic attitudes already present in American society. Racism at this time was not only directed against Asians, but also affected African-Americans, who continued to face segregation and systemic discrimination in many parts of the country. Despite the abolition of slavery after the Civil War, Jim Crow laws in the South and other forms of institutionalised discrimination kept African Americans in an inferior position socially, economically and politically.		日本在1905年日俄战争中战胜俄国，加剧了美国的这种担忧，加剧了对亚洲 "崛起 "和可能威胁西方霸权的担忧。这种看法导致对日本移民越来越不信任，并制定了专门针对亚洲人的移民配额和限制措施。这些政策反映并强化了美国社会中早已存在的种族主义和仇外态度。当时的种族主义不仅针对亚裔，也影响到非裔美国人，他们在美国许多地方继续面临种族隔离和系统性歧视。尽管南北战争后废除了奴隶制，但南方的吉姆-克罗法律和其他形式的制度化歧视仍使非裔美国人在社会、经济和政治上处于劣势地位。

	After the First World War, the United States experienced a second wave of xenophobia and border closures, influenced by complex economic, social and political factors. During the war, immigration to the United States dropped considerably, while the American economy was heavily mobilised for the production of weapons and military equipment. With the end of the war in 1918, immigration resumed, fuelled by large numbers of European refugees seeking to escape the devastation and upheaval caused by the war. Initially, this wave of immigration did not pose a major problem, as the war industries were still active. However, with the return to a peaceful economy in 1920, the situation quickly changed. Military orders ceased, leading to mass redundancies and an economic recession. American trade unions, already preoccupied with unrest and strikes, began to blame the influx of new immigrants for unemployment and falling wages. These concerns were exacerbated by the fear of communism, particularly in relation to immigrants from Eastern Europe, where communism was gaining influence.		第一次世界大战后，受复杂的经济、社会和政治因素影响，美国经历了第二波仇外心理和关闭边境的浪潮。战争期间，移民到美国的人数大幅下降，而美国经济则被大量动员起来生产武器和军事装备。1918 年战争结束后，大量欧洲难民为躲避战争造成的破坏和动荡而涌入美国，移民潮随之恢复。起初，由于战争工业依然活跃，这股移民潮并未造成大问题。然而，随着 1920 年经济恢复和平，情况很快发生了变化。军事订单停止，导致大量裁员和经济衰退。本已忙于骚乱和罢工的美国工会开始将失业和工资下降归咎于新移民的涌入。对共产主义的恐惧加剧了这些担忧，尤其是对来自东欧的移民的恐惧，因为共产主义在东欧的影响力日益增强。

	Against this backdrop of fear of communism, economic tensions and unemployment, attitudes towards immigrants hardened. The 1920s saw the adoption of restrictive immigration laws, such as the Quota Acts of 1921 ~~and~~ 1924, which severely limited immigration from many countries, particularly those in Eastern Europe and Asia. At the same time, the United States withdrew from the international scene, despite its key role in the creation of the League of Nations after the First World War. This withdrawal and the tightening of immigration quotas reflected a growing desire for isolationism and a distrust of foreign influences. The period after the First World War was therefore a crucial one in the history of the United States, marked by economic tensions, rising anti-communism and hardening attitudes towards immigrants. These factors helped shape American immigration policy and national identity for decades to come.		在对共产主义的恐惧、经济紧张和失业的背景下，人们对移民的态度更加强硬。20 世纪 20 年代，美国通过了限制性移民法，如 1921 年和 1924 年的《配额法》，严格限制来自许多国家，特别是东欧和亚洲国家的移民。与此同时，美国退出了国际舞台，尽管它在第一次世界大战后创建国际联盟的过程中发挥了关键作用。这种退出和移民配额的收紧反映了美国日益增长的孤立主义愿望和对外国影响的不信任。因此，一战后是美国历史上至关重要的时期，其特点是经济紧张、反共产主义抬头以及对移民的态度日趋强硬。这些因素帮助塑造了美国未来几十年的移民政策和国家认同。

	= ~~Anexes~~ =		= 附件 =
	= ~~Reference~~ =		= 参考资料 =
	<references/>		<references/>

Arthur : /* 迁移因果关系建模 */

2023-12-04T14:02:39Z

迁移因果关系建模

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Arthur : /* 意大利的情况：移民与农业危机 */

2023-12-04T14:00:38Z

意大利的情况：移民与农业危机

← Version précédente		Version du 4 décembre 2023 à 16:00
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	=== 意大利的情况：移民与农业危机 ===		=== 意大利的情况：移民与农业危机 ===
	~~The Great Agricultural Depression of~~ 1873-1890 was a major catalyst for waves of emigration from Europe to the United States, with Italy being a striking example of this phenomenon. The agricultural situation in Italy, particularly in the period leading up to and during this depression, was marked by feudal structures and an outdated agrarian system.		1873-1890 年的农业大萧条是欧洲向美国移民浪潮的主要催化剂，意大利就是这一现象的一个突出例子。意大利的农业状况，尤其是在这次大萧条之前和期间，以封建结构和过时的土地制度为特征。

	In 1873, the Italian peasantry was still operating within a framework in which land was predominantly held by the nobility and religious orders. This ownership structure limited economic opportunities for small farmers and agricultural workers, who were often subjected to harsh working conditions and endemic poverty. The arrival of cheap agricultural products from America, such as wheat, exacerbated these conditions by causing local prices to plummet, making the situation of farmers even more precarious.		1873 年，意大利农民仍然在土地主要由贵族和宗教团体占有的框架内活动。这种所有制结构限制了小农和农业工人的经济机会，他们往往要忍受恶劣的工作条件和普遍的贫困。来自美洲的廉价农产品（如小麦）的到来加剧了这些状况，导致当地价格暴跌，使农民的处境更加岌岌可危。

	In Veneto and other parts of Italy, the collapse of the agricultural system and the resulting economic depression led many people to emigrate. Seeking to escape poverty and economic stagnation, many Italians saw emigration as an opportunity to build a new life in countries offering better economic prospects, notably the United States. This emigration was often envisaged as a temporary solution, with the hope of returning to Italy once savings had been made, but for many it has become permanent.		在威尼托和意大利其他地区，农业系统的崩溃和由此导致的经济萧条导致许多人移居国外。为了摆脱贫困和经济停滞，许多意大利人将移民视为在经济前景更好的国家（尤其是美国）建立新生活的机会。这种移民通常被认为是一种临时的解决办法，希望在赚取积蓄后返回意大利，但对许多人来说，这已成为永久性的。

	This pattern of emigration was not unique to Italy. Other countries in the Mediterranean basin, facing similar challenges with their obsolete agrarian systems and the economic pressure of competition from global markets, also experienced large waves of emigration. These population movements have had a significant impact on the countries of origin and destination, changing the demography, economy and even the cultural fabric of these societies.		这种移民模式并非意大利独有。地中海盆地的其他国家也面临着类似的挑战，它们的土地制度已经过时，而且面临着来自全球市场竞争的经济压力，因此也出现了大规模的移民潮。这些人口流动对原籍国和目的地国产生了重大影响，改变了这些社会的人口、经济甚至文化结构。

	=== ~~Famine in Ireland and Migratory Consequences~~ ===		=== 爱尔兰大饥荒及其移民后果 ===
	~~The Great Irish Potato Famine of~~ 1845 to 1847 was a tragic and significant episode in the history of migration. Ireland's dependence on the potato, a staple food for a large proportion of the population, made the country particularly vulnerable to potato blight, which destroyed crops. This disaster occurred in a context where Ireland was largely rural, with archaic agricultural structures and a population mainly made up of poor farmers.		1845 年至 1847 年的爱尔兰马铃薯大饥荒是移民史上一个悲惨而重要的事件。马铃薯是爱尔兰大部分人口的主食，爱尔兰对马铃薯的依赖使得该国特别容易受到马铃薯枯萎病的影响，枯萎病摧毁了农作物。这场灾难发生的背景是爱尔兰主要是农村地区，农业结构陈旧，人口主要由贫穷的农民组成。

	Ireland's colonial relationship with Britain exacerbated the crisis. British policies prohibiting Ireland from industrialising, despite its proximity to major industrial centres such as Manchester, prevented the economic development that might have offered alternatives to agricultural dependence. So when the famine struck, there was no industrial sector to absorb the surplus labour or mitigate the economic impact.		爱尔兰与英国的殖民关系加剧了这场危机。尽管爱尔兰靠近曼彻斯特等主要工业中心，但英国禁止爱尔兰进行工业化的政策阻碍了经济发展，而经济发展本可以提供农业依赖之外的其他选择。因此，当饥荒发生时，没有工业部门来吸收剩余劳动力或减轻经济影响。

	The famine, coupled with epidemics and repressive policies towards the poor and beggars, led to a massive humanitarian crisis. As a result, around two million Irish emigrated, most of them to the United States. This wave of emigration had a profound impact on Ireland, significantly reducing its population, and on the United States, where Irish immigrants formed large communities and influenced culture and society.		饥荒加上流行病以及针对穷人和乞丐的镇压政策，导致了大规模的人道主义危机。因此，约有 200 万爱尔兰人移居国外，其中大部分移居美国。这一移民潮对爱尔兰和美国都产生了深远的影响，爱尔兰人口大幅减少，爱尔兰移民在美国形成了庞大的社区，影响了美国的文化和社会。

	~~The famine in Finland in~~ 1860 offers an interesting parallel. Like Ireland, Finland, then under Russian rule, suffered from external policies that limited its economic development and increased its vulnerability to agricultural crises. These examples illustrate how colonial and imperial policies can have devastating effects on sub-dominant populations, often leading to massive migratory movements in response to economic and humanitarian crises.		1860 年在芬兰发生的饥荒提供了一个有趣的相似之处。与爱尔兰一样，当时处于俄国统治下的芬兰也遭受了外部政策的影响，这些政策限制了其经济发展，增加了其面对农业危机的脆弱性。这些例子说明了殖民政策和帝国政策如何对处于次主导地位的人口产生破坏性影响，往往导致大规模的移民运动，以应对经济和人道主义危机。

	=== ~~The Jewish Residence Zone in Russia and its Implications~~ ===		=== 俄罗斯犹太人居住区及其影响 ===
	~~The Russian Jewish Residence Zone, established in the present-day territories of Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, was a significant and often tragic part of Jewish history between~~ 1791 ~~and~~ 1917. Established by Catherine the Great, this zone was a huge 'ghetto' where the Jews of Russia were forced to live. Although it restricted freedom of movement and imposed severe economic limitations, the Residence Zone also became an important centre for Jewish culture and education. Institutions such as the Hebrew University in Vilnius were established there, testifying to a flourishing cultural and intellectual life despite the restrictions. The situation for Jews in the Zone of Residence deteriorated sharply from 1881 onwards, with the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. This event triggered waves of anti-Semitic violence, known as pogroms, which resulted in the death, destruction of property and worsening living conditions for many Jews. The pogroms intensified in 1905, following Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, with Jews often used as scapegoats for the frustrations and failures of the Russian Empire.		俄罗斯犹太人居住区位于今天的拉脱维亚、立陶宛和波兰境内，是 1791 年至 1917 年间犹太人历史的重要组成部分，往往也是悲剧性的组成部分。该区由凯瑟琳大帝建立，是一个巨大的 "犹太区"，俄罗斯的犹太人被迫生活在这里。虽然它限制了行动自由并施加了严格的经济限制，但居住区也成为了重要的犹太文化和教育中心。维尔纽斯希伯来大学等机构在此建立，证明尽管有种种限制，这里的文化和知识生活却十分繁荣。从 1881 年起，沙皇亚历山大二世遇刺身亡，居住区内犹太人的处境急剧恶化。这一事件引发了被称为大屠杀的反犹太暴力浪潮，导致许多犹太人死亡、财产损失和生活条件恶化。1905 年，俄罗斯在日俄战争中战败后，大屠杀愈演愈烈，犹太人经常被当作俄罗斯帝国挫折和失败的替罪羊。

	This violence and continued oppression led to a significant wave of emigration of Jewish populations from the Residence Zone. Many Jews chose to migrate to North America, particularly the United States, in search of security, freedom and better economic opportunities. This migration had a considerable impact both on the communities they left behind and on the societies into which they integrated, bringing with them their culture, knowledge and resilience. Jewish migration from the Area of Residence to other parts of the world is a poignant example of how persecution and political instability can lead to massive population movements, redefining communities and identities across the globe.		这种暴力和持续的压迫导致大批犹太人从居住区移民。许多犹太人选择移居北美，特别是美国，以寻求安全、自由和更好的经济机会。这种移民对他们留下的社区和他们融入的社会都产生了相当大的影响，带来了他们的文化、知识和复原力。犹太人从居住地向世界其他地区的迁移是一个生动的例子，说明迫害和政治动荡如何导致大规模人口迁移，重新定义全球各地的社区和身份。

	=== ~~The Role of Port Cities in Attracting the United States~~ ===		=== 港口城市在吸引美国方面的作用 ===
	The mass migrations of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had a profound influence on the development of many European cities, particularly port cities, but in a different way from what might be expected. On the one hand, some migrants who arrived in European ports hoping to continue their journey to other destinations found themselves forced to settle in these cities because they lacked the financial means to continue their journey. These port cities, such as Hamburg, Liverpool and Marseille, have seen their population and cultural diversity grow significantly, with the formation of new ethnic communities and a notable contribution to the economic and cultural life of these cities.		十九世纪和二十世纪初的大规模移民对许多欧洲城市，尤其是港口城市的发展产生了深远的影响，但影响的方式却与想象的不同。一方面，一些移民抵达欧洲港口后希望继续前往其他目的地，但由于缺乏继续旅行的经济能力，他们被迫在这些城市定居。这些港口城市，如汉堡、利物浦和马赛，人口和文化多样性显著增加，形成了新的民族社区，为这些城市的经济和文化生活做出了突出贡献。

	On the other hand, the decision of some migrants to stay in these port cities was also based on an economic calculation. After comparing real wages - i.e. wages adjusted for the cost of living - in their country of origin with those in the destination country, some concluded that the economic situation was ultimately more advantageous in Europe. This decision was often influenced by disillusionment with the myth of countries such as the United States, perceived as lands of opportunity but where the reality could prove more difficult in terms of language barriers, lack of skilled employment opportunities, and discrimination.		另一方面，一些移民决定留在这些港口城市也是出于经济考虑。在比较了原籍国和目的地国的实际工资（即根据生活成本调整后的工资）后，一些人得出结论，欧洲的经济状况最终更有利。做出这一决定的原因往往是对美国等国神话的幻想破灭，这些国家被认为是充满机会的国度，但现实中却存在语言障碍、缺乏技术就业机会和歧视等问题。

	Migration not only transformed the host societies in America, but also had a considerable impact on European cities, changing their demography and urban development. These port cities have become crossroads for diverse cultures, shaping their unique character and playing an important role in the history of migration.		移民不仅改变了美国的东道国社会，也对欧洲城市产生了相当大的影响，改变了这些城市的人口结构和城市发展。这些港口城市已成为多元文化的交汇点，塑造了其独特的个性，并在移民史上发挥了重要作用。

	= ~~Migration Causality Modelling~~ =		= 迁移因果关系建模 =

	The continuity of migration, even after the end of a specific crisis, can be understood by taking into account the complexity and interdependence of the factors that influence migration. Migration is not triggered by a single event or condition, but rather results from a combination of factors that interact and complement each other. One of the crucial elements is the cumulative effect of previous migrations. Previous migrations create diaspora communities in destination countries, which in turn encourage and facilitate the arrival of new migrants. This form of chain migration means that population movements can continue even after the initial cause has disappeared. Crises, in addition to their immediate impact, can bring about lasting societal and cultural changes. These changes can permanently alter economic and social structures, as well as people's aspirations and expectations, which can continue to motivate migration long after the crisis is over. In addition, perceptions and expectations play an important role. Perceived opportunities abroad, often idealised through the success stories of previous migrants, may continue to motivate migration. These perceptions can persist even when reality is different, fuelling continued migration. Protracted economic and political conditions resulting from previous crises can also fuel migration. For example, major economic transformations or high unemployment persisting after the end of the crisis can drive people to seek better opportunities elsewhere. The migration policies of destination countries and international legislation also influence the continuity of migration. More liberal policies and agreements facilitating migration can encourage a continuous flow of migrants. Finally, once migration becomes a viable and recognised option, it can become a standard response to economic or social challenges, even in the absence of an acute crisis. This social and economic inertia can maintain the movement of populations long after the problems that initially motivated it have been resolved. Taken as a whole, migration is a dynamic and multifactorial process, where various social, economic, political and personal factors intermingle, often creating a momentum that perpetuates migration beyond its initial causes.		The continuity of migration, even after the end of a specific crisis, can be understood by taking into account the complexity and interdependence of the factors that influence migration. Migration is not triggered by a single event or condition, but rather results from a combination of factors that interact and complement each other. One of the crucial elements is the cumulative effect of previous migrations. Previous migrations create diaspora communities in destination countries, which in turn encourage and facilitate the arrival of new migrants. This form of chain migration means that population movements can continue even after the initial cause has disappeared. Crises, in addition to their immediate impact, can bring about lasting societal and cultural changes. These changes can permanently alter economic and social structures, as well as people's aspirations and expectations, which can continue to motivate migration long after the crisis is over. In addition, perceptions and expectations play an important role. Perceived opportunities abroad, often idealised through the success stories of previous migrants, may continue to motivate migration. These perceptions can persist even when reality is different, fuelling continued migration. Protracted economic and political conditions resulting from previous crises can also fuel migration. For example, major economic transformations or high unemployment persisting after the end of the crisis can drive people to seek better opportunities elsewhere. The migration policies of destination countries and international legislation also influence the continuity of migration. More liberal policies and agreements facilitating migration can encourage a continuous flow of migrants. Finally, once migration becomes a viable and recognised option, it can become a standard response to economic or social challenges, even in the absence of an acute crisis. This social and economic inertia can maintain the movement of populations long after the problems that initially motivated it have been resolved. Taken as a whole, migration is a dynamic and multifactorial process, where various social, economic, political and personal factors intermingle, often creating a momentum that perpetuates migration beyond its initial causes.

Arthur : /* 移民系统动力学和移民潮 */

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移民系统动力学和移民潮

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Arthur le 4 décembre 2023 à 13:57

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Arthur : Page créée avec « 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève][http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français] {{Translations | fr = La formation de systèmes migratoires mondiaux | es = La formación de sistemas migratorios globales | it = La formazione dei sistemi... »

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Page créée avec « 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编<ref>[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève]</ref><ref>[http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français]</ref> {{Translations | fr = La formation de systèmes migratoires mondiaux | es = La formación de sistemas migratorios globales | it = La formazione dei sistemi... »

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全球移民体系的形成 - Historique des versions

Arthur : /* Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies */

Arthur : /* 工业化对美国社会的影响 */

Arthur : /* 迁移因果关系建模 */

Arthur : /* 意大利的情况： 移民与农业危机 */

Arthur : /* 移民系统动力学和移民潮 */

Arthur le 4 décembre 2023 à 13:57

Arthur : /* Rising Xenophobia and Migration Restriction Policies */

Arthur : /* 工业化对美国社会的影响 */

Arthur : /* 迁移因果关系建模 */

Arthur : /* 意大利的情况：移民与农业危机 */

Arthur : /* 移民系统动力学和移民潮 */