中东地区的帝国和国家 - Historique des versions

Arthur : /* Annexes */

2023-12-22T14:30:51Z

Annexes

← Version précédente		Version du 22 décembre 2023 à 16:30
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	联合国近东巴勒斯坦难民救济和工程处（近东救济工程处）成立于 1949 年，为 500 多万已登记的巴勒斯坦难民提供支助。与 1951 年关于一般难民的公约不同，近东救济工程处还包括 1948 年难民的后代，这大大增加了相关人数。1978 年在戴维营谈判达成的和平协定或 1993 年的《奥斯陆协定》等都承认巴勒斯坦难民问题是和平进程框架内的一个谈判议题。然而，这些协定并没有明确提及巴勒斯坦难民的 "返回权"。难民问题的解决一般被认为是以色列与其邻国通过双边协议解决的问题。		联合国近东巴勒斯坦难民救济和工程处（近东救济工程处）成立于 1949 年，为 500 多万已登记的巴勒斯坦难民提供支助。与 1951 年关于一般难民的公约不同，近东救济工程处还包括 1948 年难民的后代，这大大增加了相关人数。1978 年在戴维营谈判达成的和平协定或 1993 年的《奥斯陆协定》等都承认巴勒斯坦难民问题是和平进程框架内的一个谈判议题。然而，这些协定并没有明确提及巴勒斯坦难民的 "返回权"。难民问题的解决一般被认为是以色列与其邻国通过双边协议解决的问题。

	= ~~Annexes~~ =		= 附录 =

	= ~~References~~ =		= 参考资料 =
	<references/>		<references/>

Arthur : /* Israel */

2023-12-22T14:30:18Z

Israel

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Arthur : /* Iraq */

2023-12-22T14:29:19Z

Iraq

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Arthur : /* Jordan */

2023-12-22T14:28:13Z

Jordan

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Arthur : /* Lebanon */

2023-12-22T14:26:47Z

Lebanon

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Arthur : /* Syria */

2023-12-22T14:25:59Z

Syria

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Arthur : /* Countries created by decree */

2023-12-22T14:25:04Z

Countries created by decree

← Version précédente		Version du 22 décembre 2023 à 16:25
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	这次事件在沙特阿拉伯和穆斯林世界产生了深远的影响。它揭示了沙特社会的裂痕，凸显了沙特王国在管理宗教极端主义方面面临的挑战。为应对危机，沙特政府强化了保守的宗教政策，加强了对宗教机构的控制，同时继续镇压伊斯兰反对派。这一事件也凸显了沙特阿拉伯宗教、政治和权力之间关系的复杂性。		这次事件在沙特阿拉伯和穆斯林世界产生了深远的影响。它揭示了沙特社会的裂痕，凸显了沙特王国在管理宗教极端主义方面面临的挑战。为应对危机，沙特政府强化了保守的宗教政策，加强了对宗教机构的控制，同时继续镇压伊斯兰反对派。这一事件也凸显了沙特阿拉伯宗教、政治和权力之间关系的复杂性。

	=~~Countries created by decree~~=		=通过法令建立的国家=

	At the end of the First World War, the United States, under the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, had a different vision from that of the European powers regarding the future of the territories conquered during the war. Wilson, with his Fourteen Points, advocated the right of peoples to self-determination and opposed the acquisition of territory by conquest, a position that contrasted with the traditional colonial objectives of the European powers, notably Great Britain and France. The United States was also in favour of an open and equitable system of trade, which meant that territories should not be exclusively under the control of a single power, in order to allow wider commercial access, thus benefiting American interests. In practice, however, British and French interests prevailed, the latter having made significant territorial gains following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the defeat of Germany.		第一次世界大战结束时，伍德罗-威尔逊（Woodrow Wilson）担任总统的美国对战争期间征服的领土的未来有着与欧洲列强不同的看法。威尔逊的 "十四点 "主张人民享有自决权，反对通过征服获取领土，这一立场与欧洲列强，特别是英国和法国的传统殖民目标形成了鲜明对比。美国还赞成开放和公平的贸易制度，这意味着领土不应完全由一个大国控制，以便有更广泛的商业准入，从而有利于美国的利益。但实际上，英国和法国的利益占了上风，后者在奥斯曼帝国崩溃和德国战败后获得了大量领土。

	To reconcile these different perspectives, a compromise was found through the League of Nations system of mandates. This system was supposed to be a form of international governance for the conquered territories, in preparation for their eventual independence. Setting up this system required a complex process of negotiations and treaties. The San Remo Conference in 1920 was a key moment in this process, during which the mandates for the territories of the former Ottoman Empire were awarded, mainly to Great Britain and France. Subsequently, the Cairo Conference in 1921 further defined the terms and limits of these mandates. The Treaties of Sèvres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 redrew the map of the Middle East and formalised the end of the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres, in particular, dismantled the Ottoman Empire and provided for the creation of a number of independent nation states. However, due to Turkish opposition and subsequent changes in the geopolitical situation, the Treaty of Sèvres was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne, which redefined the borders of modern Turkey and annulled some of the provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres. This lengthy negotiation process reflected the complexities and tensions of the post-war world order, with established powers seeking to maintain their influence while confronting new international ideals and the emergence of the United States as a global power.		为了调和这些不同的观点，人们通过国际联盟的委任统治制度找到了一个折中方案。这一制度本应成为被征服领土的一种国际治理形式，为其最终独立做好准备。建立这一制度需要复杂的谈判和条约过程。1920 年的圣雷莫会议是这一过程中的关键时刻，在这次会议上，主要是英国和法国获得了前奥斯曼帝国领土的委任统治权。随后，1921 年的开罗会议进一步确定了这些委任统治的条件和范围。1920 年的《塞夫尔条约》和 1923 年的《洛桑条约》重新绘制了中东地图，正式宣告了奥斯曼帝国的灭亡。尤其是《塞夫尔条约》解散了奥斯曼帝国，并规定建立若干独立的民族国家。然而，由于土耳其的反对以及随后地缘政治局势的变化，《塞夫尔条约》被《洛桑条约》取代，后者重新确定了现代土耳其的边界，并废除了《塞夫尔条约》的部分条款。这一漫长的谈判过程反映了战后世界秩序的复杂性和紧张局势，既有大国在寻求保持其影响力的同时，又要面对新的国际理想和美国作为全球大国的崛起。

	After the First World War, the dismantling of the Ottoman and German empires led to the creation of the League of Nations system of mandates, an attempt to manage the territories of these former empires in a post-colonial context. This system, established by the post-war peace treaties, notably the Treaty of Versailles in 1919~~, was divided into three categories - A, B and~~ C ~~- reflecting the perceived degree of development and readiness for self-government of the territories concerned.~~		一战后，奥斯曼帝国和德意志帝国解体，国际联盟委任统治制度应运而生，试图在后殖民背景下管理这些前帝国的领土。这一制度由战后和平条约，特别是 1919 年的《凡尔赛条约》建立，分为 A、B 和 C 三类，反映了有关领土的发展程度和自治准备情况。

	~~Type~~ A ~~mandates, allocated to the territories of the former Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, were considered to be the most advanced towards self-determination. These territories, considered relatively~~ "~~civilised~~" ~~by the standards of the time, included Syria and Lebanon, under the French mandate, as well as Palestine (including present-day Jordan) and Iraq, under the British mandate. The notion of~~ "~~civilisation~~" ~~employed at the time reflected the prejudices and paternalistic attitudes of the colonial powers, assuming that these regions were closer to self-governance than others. The treatment of Type~~ A mandates reflected the geopolitical interests of the mandating powers, notably Britain and France, who sought to extend their influence in the region. Their actions were often motivated by strategic and economic considerations, such as control of trade routes and access to oil resources, rather than a commitment to the autonomy of local populations. This was illustrated by the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which Britain expressed its support for the creation of a "~~Jewish national home~~" in Palestine, a decision that had lasting and divisive consequences for the region. Type B and C mandates, mainly in Africa and certain Pacific islands, were considered to require a higher level of supervision. These territories, often underdeveloped and with little infrastructure, were managed more directly by the mandating powers. The system of mandates, although presented as a form of benevolent trusteeship, was in reality very close to colonialism and was widely perceived as such by the indigenous populations.		分配给中东前奥斯曼帝国领土的 A 类委任统治被认为是最接近自决的。按照当时的标准，这些领土被认为相对 "文明"，包括法国委任统治下的叙利亚和黎巴嫩，以及英国委任统治下的巴勒斯坦（包括今天的约旦）和伊拉克。当时使用的 "文明 "概念反映了殖民国家的偏见和家长式态度，认为这些地区比其他地区更接近自治。对 A 类委任统治地的处理反映了委任统治国，特别是英国和法国的地缘政治利益，它们试图扩大在该地区的影响力。它们的行动往往是出于战略和经济考虑，如控制贸易路线和获取石油资源，而不是致力于当地居民的自治。1917 年的《贝尔福宣言》就说明了这一点，英国在宣言中表示支持在巴勒斯坦建立 "犹太民族家园"，这一决定对该地区产生了持久和分裂性的影响。B类和C类委任统治地主要在非洲和某些太平洋岛屿，被认为需要更高水平的监督。这些领土往往欠发达，基础设施匮乏，委任统治国对其进行更直接的管理。委任统治制度虽然被说成是一种仁慈的托管形式，但实际上与殖民主义非常接近，土著居民也普遍这样认为。

	In short, the League of Nations system of mandates, despite its stated intention to prepare territories for independence, often served to perpetuate the influence and control of the European powers in the regions concerned. It also laid the foundations for many future political and territorial conflicts, particularly in the Middle East, where the borders and policies established during this period continue to have a significant impact on regional and international dynamics.		简而言之，尽管国际联盟委任统治制度宣称其目的是为领土独立做好准备，但它往往起到了使欧洲列强在相关地区的影响和控制永久化的作用。它还为许多未来的政治和领土冲突奠定了基础，特别是在中东，在此期间确立的边界和政策继续对区域和国际动态产生重大影响。

	[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Territories lost by the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.png\|centré\|]]		[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Territories lost by the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.png\|centré\|]]

	This map shows the distribution of territories formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East and North Africa after they were lost by the Empire, mainly as a result of the First World War. The different zones of influence and the territories controlled by the European powers are colour-coded. The territories are divided according to the power that controlled them or exercised influence over them. British-controlled territories are in purple, the French in yellow, the Italians in pink and the Spanish in blue. Independent territories are marked in pale yellow, the Ottoman Empire is in glass with its borders at their height highlighted, and areas of Russian and British influence are also shown.		这幅地图显示了奥斯曼帝国主要因第一次世界大战而失去的中东和北非地区原控制领土的分布情况。不同的势力范围和欧洲列强控制的领土用颜色标示。这些领土根据控制它们或对它们施加影响的列强来划分。英国控制的领土为紫色，法国控制的领土为黄色，意大利控制的领土为粉色，西班牙控制的领土为蓝色。独立领土用淡黄色标注，奥斯曼帝国用玻璃标注，并突出显示了其最盛时期的边界，俄罗斯和英国的势力范围也在其中。

	The map also shows the dates of initial occupation or control of certain territories by colonial powers, indicating the period of imperialist expansion in North Africa and the Middle East. For example, Algeria has been marked as French territory since 1830~~, Tunisia since~~ 1881 ~~and Morocco is divided between French (since~~ 1912~~) and Spanish (since~~ 1912~~) control. Libya, meanwhile, was under Italian control from~~ 1911 to 1932~~. Egypt has been marked as British-controlled since~~ 1882~~, although it was technically a British protectorate. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is also shown, reflecting joint Egyptian and British control since~~ 1899. As far as the Middle East is concerned, the map clearly shows the League of Nations mandates, with Syria and Lebanon under French mandate and Iraq and Palestine (including present-day Transjordan) under British mandate. The Hijaz, the region around Mecca and Medina, is also shown, reflecting the control of the Saud family, while Yemen and Oman are marked as British protectorates. This map is a useful tool for understanding the geopolitical changes that took place after the decline of the Ottoman Empire and how the Middle East and North Africa were reshaped by European colonial interests. It also shows the complexity of power relations in the region, which continue to affect regional and international politics today.		地图还显示了殖民国家最初占领或控制某些领土的日期，表明帝国主义在北非和中东的扩张时期。例如，阿尔及利亚自 1830 年起被标为法国领土，突尼斯自 1881 年起被标为法国领土，摩洛哥则由法国（自 1912 年起）和西班牙（自 1912 年起）控制。而利比亚从 1911 年到 1932 年一直由意大利控制。埃及自 1882 年起被标注为英国控制，尽管从技术上讲它是英国的保护国。英埃苏丹也被标注为自 1899 年以来由埃及和英国共同控制。就中东而言，地图清楚地显示了国际联盟的委任统治，其中叙利亚和黎巴嫩由法国委任统治，伊拉克和巴勒斯坦（包括今天的外约旦）由英国委任统治。地图上还标出了希贾兹，即麦加和麦地那周边地区，反映了沙特家族的控制，而也门和阿曼则被标为英国保护国。这幅地图是了解奥斯曼帝国衰落后地缘政治变化以及欧洲殖民利益如何重塑中东和北非的有用工具。它还显示了该地区权力关系的复杂性，这种关系至今仍影响着地区和国际政治。

	In 1919, following the First World War, the division of the territories of the former Ottoman Empire between the European powers was a controversial and divisive process. The local populations of these regions, having nurtured aspirations to self-~~determination and independence, often greeted the establishment of European~~-controlled mandates with hostility. This hostility was part of a wider context of dissatisfaction with Western influence and intervention in the region. The Arab nationalist movement, which had gained momentum during the war, aspired to the creation of a unified Arab state or several independent Arab states. These aspirations had been encouraged by British promises of support for Arab independence in return for support against the Ottomans, notably through the Hussein-McMahon correspondence and the Arab Revolt led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca. However, the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, a secret arrangement between Britain and France, divided the region into zones of influence, betraying promises made to the Arabs.		1919 年，第一次世界大战结束后，欧洲列强瓜分前奥斯曼帝国领土的过程充满争议和分歧。这些地区的当地居民一直怀有自决和独立的愿望，他们往往对建立由欧洲控制的委任统治充满敌意。这种敌意是对西方在该地区的影响和干预不满的大背景的一部分。阿拉伯民族主义运动在战争期间势头强劲，渴望建立一个统一的阿拉伯国家或几个独立的阿拉伯国家。英国承诺支持阿拉伯独立，以换取对奥斯曼帝国的支持，特别是通过侯赛因-麦克马洪通信和麦加侯赛因领导的阿拉伯起义，鼓励了这些愿望。然而，1916 年英国和法国秘密签订的《赛克斯-皮科协定》将该地区划分为多个势力范围，背叛了对阿拉伯人的承诺。

	~~Anti~~-Western feelings were particularly strong because of the perception that the European powers were not honouring their commitments to the Arab populations and were manipulating the region for their own imperialist interests. By contrast, the United States was often viewed less critically by local populations. American policy under President Woodrow Wilson was seen as more supportive of self-determination and less inclined towards traditional imperialism. Moreover, the United States did not have the same colonial history as the European powers in the region, which made it less likely to arouse the hostility of local populations. The immediate post-war period was therefore one of profound uncertainty and tension in the Middle East, as local populations struggled for independence and autonomy in the face of foreign powers seeking to shape the region according to their own strategic and economic interests. The repercussions of these events shaped the political and social history of the Middle East throughout the 20th century and continue to influence international relations in the region.		反西方情绪尤为强烈，因为人们认为欧洲列强没有履行对阿拉伯人民的承诺，而是为了自己的帝国主义利益操纵该地区。相比之下，当地民众对美国的看法往往没有那么严厉。伍德罗-威尔逊总统领导下的美国政策被认为更支持自决，较少倾向于传统帝国主义。此外，美国在该地区没有欧洲列强那样的殖民历史，因此不太可能引起当地民众的敌意。因此，战后不久的中东地区充满了极度的不确定性和紧张局势，面对外国列强试图按照自己的战略和经济利益塑造该地区，当地民众努力争取独立和自治。这些事件的影响塑造了整个 20 世纪中东的政治和社会历史，并继续影响着该地区的国际关系。

	=Syria=		=Syria=

Arthur : /* 沙特阿拉伯= == */

2023-12-22T14:24:16Z

沙特阿拉伯= ==

← Version précédente		Version du 22 décembre 2023 à 16:24
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	穆巴拉克执政期间，埃及相对稳定，但政治压迫也日益加剧，尤其是针对穆斯林兄弟会和其他反对派团体。然而，2011 年，在 "阿拉伯之春 "期间，穆巴拉克被一场民众起义推翻，这表明了人们对腐败、失业和政治压迫的普遍不满。穆斯林兄弟会成员穆罕默德-穆尔西于 2012 年当选总统，但任期很短。2013 年，他被阿卜杜勒-法塔赫-西西将军领导的军事政变推翻，后者随后于 2014 年当选总统。西西政权的特点是加大对持不同政见者（包括穆斯林兄弟会成员）的镇压力度，并努力稳定经济和加强国家安全。因此，埃及历史上最近一段时期的特点是发生了重大政治变革，反映了埃及和阿拉伯政治复杂且经常动荡的动态。		穆巴拉克执政期间，埃及相对稳定，但政治压迫也日益加剧，尤其是针对穆斯林兄弟会和其他反对派团体。然而，2011 年，在 "阿拉伯之春 "期间，穆巴拉克被一场民众起义推翻，这表明了人们对腐败、失业和政治压迫的普遍不满。穆斯林兄弟会成员穆罕默德-穆尔西于 2012 年当选总统，但任期很短。2013 年，他被阿卜杜勒-法塔赫-西西将军领导的军事政变推翻，后者随后于 2014 年当选总统。西西政权的特点是加大对持不同政见者（包括穆斯林兄弟会成员）的镇压力度，并努力稳定经济和加强国家安全。因此，埃及历史上最近一段时期的特点是发生了重大政治变革，反映了埃及和阿拉伯政治复杂且经常动荡的动态。

	=沙特阿拉伯~~= ==~~=		=沙特阿拉伯=

	=== 建国联盟：伊本-沙特和伊本-阿卜杜勒-瓦哈比 ===		=== 建国联盟：伊本-沙特和伊本-阿卜杜勒-瓦哈比 ===

Arthur : /* Saudi Arabia */

2023-12-22T14:24:03Z

Saudi Arabia

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Arthur : /* Egypt */

2023-12-22T14:21:31Z

Egypt

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中东地区的帝国和国家 - Historique des versions

Arthur : /* Annexes */

Arthur : /* Israel */

Arthur : /* Iraq */

Arthur : /* Jordan */

Arthur : /* Lebanon */

Arthur : /* Syria */

Arthur : /* Countries created by decree */

Arthur : /* 沙特阿拉伯= == */

Arthur : /* Saudi Arabia */

Arthur : /* Egypt */

Arthur : /* Annexes */

Arthur : /* Israel */

Arthur : /* Iraq */

Arthur : /* Jordan */

Arthur : /* Lebanon */

Arthur : /* Syria */

Arthur : /* Countries created by decree */

Arthur : /* 沙特阿拉伯= == */

Arthur : /* Saudi Arabia */

Arthur : /* Egypt */