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中东文化深受这些语言和宗教多样性的影响,在艺术、音乐和烹饪方面有着丰富的表现形式。例如,具有复杂几何图案的伊斯兰艺术反映了宗教对具象表现的禁止。由乌姆-卡尔苏姆(Oum Kalthoum)等代表人物演奏的阿拉伯古典音乐,对地区文化的影响远远超出了语言边界。斋月和波斯诺鲁孜节等节日是宗教和文化传统交织形成独特习俗的例证。
中东文化深受这些语言和宗教多样性的影响,在艺术、音乐和烹饪方面有着丰富的表现形式。例如,具有复杂几何图案的伊斯兰艺术反映了宗教对具象表现的禁止。由乌姆-卡尔苏姆(Oum Kalthoum)等代表人物演奏的阿拉伯古典音乐,对地区文化的影响远远超出了语言边界。斋月和波斯诺鲁孜节等节日是宗教和文化传统交织形成独特习俗的例证。


=Linguistic Diversity in the Middle East=
==中东的语言多样性==  
   
   
The linguistic diversity of the Middle East is one of its most distinctive features, illustrated by the presence of three major language families: Ural-Altaic, Indo-European and Semitic.
中东的语言多样性是其最显著的特征之一,三大语系的存在就说明了这一点:乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系、印欧语系和闪米特语系。


=== Linguistic Panorama of the Middle East ===  
=== 中东语言全景 ===


The Ural-Altaic family encompasses languages spoken in much of Asia and parts of Eastern Europe. In the context of the Middle East, this family is mainly represented by Turkish, the official language of Turkey, which bears witness to the expansion of the Turkic peoples and the historical influence of the Ottoman Empire in the region. Other languages, such as Azeri, spoken in Azerbaijan and by certain communities in Iran, also belong to this family. The Indo-European family, which is one of the largest and most diverse in the world, includes languages such as Persian, Kurdish and Armenian. Persian, in particular, is of major historical and cultural importance, being the language of the ancient Persian Empire and modern Iran. Kurdish, spoken by the Kurdish people spread across Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey, and Armenian, the language of Armenia and the Armenian diaspora, complete this linguistic wealth. Finally, the family of Semitic languages is crucial in the context of the Middle East. Arabic, the language of the Koran and the lingua franca of many Arab countries, is the most widespread of this family. Hebrew, an ancient language which underwent a modern renaissance with the creation of the State of Israel, and other languages such as Aramaic and Assyrian, although less widely spoken, are of significant historical and cultural importance.
乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系包括在亚洲大部分地区和东欧部分地区使用的语言。在中东地区,该语系主要以土耳其的官方语言土耳其语为代表,土耳其语见证了突厥民族的扩张和奥斯曼帝国在该地区的历史影响。其他语言,如阿塞拜疆和伊朗某些社区使用的阿塞拜疆语,也属于这一语系。印欧语系是世界上最大和最多样化的语系之一,包括波斯语、库尔德语和亚美尼亚语。波斯语是古代波斯帝国和现代伊朗的语言,具有重要的历史和文化意义。库尔德语是分布在伊拉克、伊朗、叙利亚和土耳其的库尔德人使用的语言,亚美尼亚语是亚美尼亚和亚美尼亚人散居地使用的语言,这些语言为我们提供了丰富的语言资源。最后,闪米特语系对中东地区至关重要。阿拉伯语是《古兰经》中的语言,也是许多阿拉伯国家的通用语言,是这个语系中最普遍的语言。希伯来语是一种古老的语言,随着以色列国的建立,希伯来语和其他语言如阿拉米 语和亚述语在现代得到了复兴,尽管这些语言的使用范围较小,但却具有重要的历史和文 化意义。


[[Fichier:A language map of the Middle East (Izady).png|center|vignette]]
[[Fichier:A language map of the Middle East (Izady).png|center|vignette]]


This coloured map shows the languages spoken in the Middle East and illustrates the population density of the regions where these languages predominate. It distinguishes languages by linguistic family and by population concentration in the regions concerned.
这幅彩色地图显示了中东地区使用的语言,并说明了这些语言主要使用地区的人口密度。它按语系和有关地区的人口密度对语言进行了区分。


=== The Expansion and Influence of the Arabic Language ===  
=== 阿拉伯语的扩张和影响 ===


The yellow areas represent densely populated regions where Arabic is predominant. This includes countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, Lebanon and others. Arabic is the main language of the Semitic language group and is spoken throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. The map illustrates the predominance of the Arabic language in areas coloured yellow, indicating a high population density in these regions. The Arabic language, belonging to the Semitic group, is not only an official language but also an integral part of cultural and religious identity in the Middle East.
黄色区域代表阿拉伯语占主导地位的人口稠密地区。这包括埃及、沙特阿拉伯、也门、约旦、黎巴嫩等国家。阿拉伯语是闪米特语族的主要语言,在整个阿拉伯半岛及其他地区通用。该地图显示,阿拉伯语在黄色区域占主导地位,表明这些区域人口密度较高。阿拉伯语属于闪米特语族,不仅是一种官方语言,也是中东地区文化和宗教特征的组成部分。


Arabic spread well beyond the Arabian Peninsula, notably through the Islamic conquests from the 7th century onwards, becoming one of the most influential languages in the region. It is now spoken in many countries in the Middle East and North Africa. In countries such as Egypt, where civilisation dates back thousands of years, Arabic has supplanted ancient languages such as Ancient Egyptian, becoming the language of the majority of the population. In Saudi Arabia, the cradle of Islam and site of the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina, Arabic is of particular importance both religiously and culturally. In other regions, such as Yemen and Jordan, Arabic is spoken in a variety of dialects, reflecting the intrinsic diversity of the language. Lebanon, known for its cultural and religious diversity, also has a mosaic of Arabic dialects, influenced by many other languages throughout its history. In this way, the map confirms that Arabic not only serves as a language of everyday communication, but also plays an essential role in the preservation and transmission of culture and history throughout the Middle East.
阿拉伯语传播到阿拉伯半岛以外的地区,特别是通过 7 世纪以来的伊斯兰征服,成为该地区最有影响力的语言之一。现在,中东和北非的许多国家都使用阿拉伯语。在埃及等国家,阿拉伯语的文明可以追溯到几千年前,它已经取代了古埃及语等古老语言,成为大多数人的语言。沙特阿拉伯是伊斯兰教的摇篮,也是麦加和麦地那两座圣城的所在地,阿拉伯语在宗教和文化上都具有特别重要的意义。在也门和约旦等其他地区,阿拉伯语有多种方言,反映了该语言固有的多样性。黎巴嫩以其文化和宗教的多样性而闻名,在其历史上也受到许多其他语言的影响,拥有多种阿拉伯方言。因此,该地图证实,阿拉伯语不仅是一种日常交流语言,而且在整个中东地区文化和历史的保护和传承方面发挥着至关重要的作用。


=== The Indo-European and Semitic Linguistic Mosaic ===  
=== 印欧语系和闪米特语系镶嵌画 ===


The green areas on the map indicate the presence of Indo-European languages, which bear witness to the ethnolinguistic and historical diversity of the Middle East. Persian, for example, is the official language of Iran and has considerable cultural and literary influence. It is a language that can be traced back to the ancient Achaemenid Empire, testifying to the historical depth of the region. Kurdish, meanwhile, is spoken in geographically discontinuous areas, mainly in the mountains of Kurdistan, which span several modern national borders, including Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria. Kurdish is the mother tongue of the Kurdish population, who have maintained their language and culture despite the pressure of assimilation and political change in the region. Armenian, spoken in Armenia and by the Armenian diaspora, is another important Indo-European language that has survived despite historical upheaval, including the Armenian genocide in the early 20th century. Armenian has its own unique alphabet, created in the 5th century, which is a key element of Armenian national identity. These 'islands' of Indo-European languages not only represent the geographical distribution of ethnic groups, but also reflect the complex migratory movements and historical interactions that have shaped the Middle East. Languages are vectors of culture and collective memory, and their distribution offers us a glimpse into the histories of resilience, adaptation and cultural preservation in a region marked by great dynamics of change.
地图上的绿色区域表示印欧语系的存在,它们见证了中东地区民族语言和历史的多样性。例如,波斯语是伊朗的官方语言,具有相当大的文化和文学影响。这种语言可以追溯到古代阿契美尼德帝国,证明了该地区的历史底蕴。库尔德语则是在地理上不连续的地区使用,主要分布在库尔德斯坦山区,横跨土耳其、伊拉克、伊朗和叙利亚等几个现代国家边界。库尔德语是库尔德人的母语,尽管该地区面临同化和政治变革的压力,但库尔德人仍保持着自己的语言和文化。亚美尼亚语是另一种重要的印欧语言,在亚美尼亚和亚美尼亚侨民中使用,尽管经历了历史动荡,包括 20 世纪初的亚美尼亚种族灭绝,亚美尼亚语仍得以保存。亚美尼亚语有自己独特的字母表,创建于 5 世纪,是亚美尼亚民族特性的一个关键要素。这些印欧语系的 "岛屿 "不仅代表了族群的地理分布,也反映了塑造中东地区的复杂迁徙运动和历史互动。语言是文化和集体记忆的载体,它们的分布让我们得以一窥这个充满巨大变革动力的地区的复原、适应和文化保护历史。


The map highlights the regions where the Turkic languages, symbolised by different shades of red, are predominant. These languages belong to the Ural-Altaic language family and are spoken by peoples whose history and culture have been profoundly shaped by migration and the Turkic empires. Turkish, the national language of Turkey, is the most notable representative of this family and is the direct result of the legacy of the Ottoman Empire, which at its height extended over vast swathes of the Middle East, South-Eastern Europe and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire not only spread its language, but also its culture, administration and religious influence across its territories. Azeri, spoken in Azerbaijan and by some communities in Iran, is closely related to Turkish and represents another important branch of Turkic languages in the region. These communities share cultural and historical links with Turkey and other Turkic peoples.
地图突出显示了突厥语(以不同深浅的红色为标志)占主导地位的地区。这些语言属于乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系,使用这些语言的民族的历史和文化深受移民和突厥帝国的影响。土耳其的国语土耳其语是这一语系中最显著的代表,它是奥斯曼帝国遗产的直接结果,奥斯曼帝国在鼎盛时期曾疆域辽阔,遍及中东、东南欧和北非。奥斯曼帝国不仅传播其语言,还在其领土上传播其文化、行政管理和宗教影响。阿塞拜疆和伊朗一些社区使用的阿塞拜疆语与土耳其语关系密切,是该地区突厥语的另一个重要分支。这些社区与土耳其和其他突厥民族有着共同的文化和历史联系。


Other Turkic languages, although less represented, are spoken in adjacent regions, including parts of Russia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. These languages, although distinct, share common features due to their similar origins and historical development. The presence of these Turkic languages bears witness to the impact of the nomadic population movements from the steppes of Central Asia, which crossed the Middle East and left an indelible linguistic and cultural mark on the region. These languages and their speakers continue to play an important role in the ethnic and cultural diversity of the modern Middle East.
其他突厥语虽然使用较少,但在邻近地区,包括俄罗斯、中亚和高加索的部分地区也有使用。这些语言虽然各具特色,但因其相似的起源和历史发展而具有共同特征。这些突厥语的存在见证了中亚草原游牧民族迁徙的影响,他们穿越中东,在该地区留下了不可磨灭的语言和文化印记。这些语言及其使用者在现代中东的民族和文化多样性中继续发挥着重要作用。


The map highlights Caucasian and other minority languages, represented in shades of brown and grey, which reveal an often overlooked aspect of the Middle East's linguistic diversity. These languages are characteristic of regions which, although less densely populated, are rich in linguistic and cultural variety. The Caucasus is particularly notable for its linguistic complexity. Languages such as Georgian, which has its own unique writing system, Kartvelian, are endemic to this region. Georgia, with its distinct history and culture, is a striking example of how languages can encapsulate a nation's identity.
该地图突出了高加索语和其他少数民族语言,以棕色和灰色为代表,揭示了中东语言多样性中经常被忽视的一个方面。这些语言是人口密度较低但语言和文化多样性丰富的地区的特征。高加索地区的语言复杂性尤为突出。格鲁吉亚语等语言是该地区的特有语言,格鲁吉亚语有自己独特的书写系统--卡尔特维利亚语。格鲁吉亚拥有独特的历史和文化,是语言可以概括一个国家特征的鲜明例子。


In addition to Georgian, there are other Caucasian languages that are spoken nowhere else in the world, such as Abkhazian and Ossetian. These languages, often geographically and historically isolated, have survived and developed independently, giving rise to unique linguistic features. Their survival testifies to the cultural resilience of the peoples of the Caucasus in the face of centuries of political and social change. Minority languages, on the other hand, may comprise linguistic varieties spoken by small communities and often reflect a rich cultural heritage and distinct traditions. Although these languages are less dominant in terms of the number of speakers, they play a crucial role in preserving the region's cultural diversity and intangible heritage. Thus, the distribution of Caucasian and minority languages on the map is a reminder that the Middle East is a region not only of conflict and trade, but also of profound linguistic and cultural richness, often overlooked in global narratives.
除格鲁吉亚语外,还有阿布哈兹语和奥塞梯语等世界上其他地方都不使用的高加索语言。这些语言往往在地理和历史上与世隔绝,但却独立生存和发展,形成了独特的语言特点。它们的生存证明了高加索地区各族人民面对数百年的政治和社会变革所表现出的文化韧性。另一方面,少数民族语言可能由小社区使用的语言种类组成,通常反映了丰富的文化遗产和独特的传统。虽然这些语言在使用人数上不占优势,但它们在保护该地区文化多样性和非物质遗产方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此,地图上高加索语言和少数民族语言的分布提醒我们,中东不仅是一个冲突和贸易地区,也是一个语言和文化丰富多彩的地区,但在全球的叙述中却常常被忽视。


This map is not simply a snapshot of linguistic diversity; it also suggests histories of settlement, trade, conquest and culture. The distribution of languages and peoples in the Middle East has been influenced by geographical factors, historical empires, migratory movements and political change. Languages, as vehicles of culture, reflect these complex dynamics, and understanding them is essential to understanding the rich history and culture of the region. The languages represented on the map are not simply tools of communication; they embody the souls of the civilisations that speak them. Each language is the reflection of a cultural identity, carrying traditions, poetry, stories and philosophies that have been woven over the centuries. Persian literature, for example, is characterised by the works of poets such as Hafez and Rumi, who have influenced not only their native region but also world thought and literature.
这幅地图不仅仅是语言多样性的缩影,它还展示了定居、贸易、征服和文化的历史。中东地区语言和民族的分布受到地理因素、历史帝国、移民运动和政治变革的影响。语言作为文化的载体,反映了这些复杂的动态变化,了解语言对于了解该地区丰富的历史和文化至关重要。地图上的语言不仅仅是简单的交流工具,它们还体现了使用这些语言的文明的灵魂。每种语言都是一种文化身份的体现,承载着千百年来交织在一起的传统、诗歌、故事和哲学。例如,波斯文学的特点是哈菲兹和鲁米等诗人的作品,他们不仅影响了自己的家乡,也影响了世界思想和文学。


Turkic languages, with epics such as Dede Korkut, convey the values and stories of the nomadic peoples of the steppes, and Caucasian languages have oral histories that bear witness to their resistance to conquest and empire. Even minority languages, which may only be spoken by small communities, are the repositories of unique cultures, offering a window onto ways of life and belief systems that are often distinct from those of the dominant cultures. The linguistic map of the Middle East is thus a living mosaic, with each colour representing not only a group of speakers, but also a chapter in human history. Migrations, conquests and trade have shaped this region, but it is the languages and cultures that have survived and continue to tell the story of its peoples. They are the link between past, present and future, perpetuating heritage and continuing to evolve through contemporary interactions.
突厥语的史诗《Dede Korkut》传达了草原游牧民族的价值观和故事,高加索语的口述历史见证了他们抵抗征服和帝国的历史。即使是只有少数群体使用的少数民族语言,也是独特文化的宝库,为人们了解往往不同于主流文化的生活方式和信仰体系提供了一个窗口。因此,中东的语言地图就像一幅活的马赛克画,每种颜色不仅代表一个使用语言的群体,也代表人类历史的一个篇章。迁徙、征服和贸易塑造了这一地区,但正是语言和文化留存了下来,并继续讲述着这一地区各民族的故事。它们是连接过去、现在和未来的纽带,使遗产得以延续,并在当代互动中继续发展。


=== Dialects and Minority Languages: A Living Cultural Heritage ===  
=== 方言和少数民族语言:活的文化遗产 ===


The dialectal diversity within the majority languages of the Middle East is a richness that is often underestimated. Take Turkish for example; although there is a standard language taught in schools and used in the media and politics, many regional dialects co-exist and reflect the history and culture of different parts of Turkey. These dialects can vary considerably from standard Turkish in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary and even grammar. Arabic is perhaps one of the most striking examples of this dialectal diversity. Literary Arabic, or Modern Standard Arabic, is universally understood and used in writing and formal speech, but in everyday life people speak in a range of dialects that can be so different from each other that speakers from distant regions sometimes find it difficult to understand each other. These dialects reflect not only the geographical region but also historical influences such as those of the Ottomans, the Persians and the French in the Levant. Kurdish, too, is divided into several main dialects, such as Kurmandji, Sorani, and Pehlewani, each with its own regional variants. The differences between these Kurdish dialects are so great that they have sometimes led to claims for separate language status. As for Armenian, although there is a standard Armenian language, Armenians around the world also speak different dialects, often influenced by the languages of the regions to which they have emigrated or dispersed over time. In addition to these main languages, there are around 20 minority languages in the Middle East, reflecting a complex human history of exchange, migration and adaptation. These languages may be spoken by small communities, but they carry with them a history and culture that deserve to be recognised and preserved. Their existence in such a linguistically rich context is further evidence of how languages evolve and adapt to the contexts in which they are spoken, often in parallel with the dominant languages of the region.
中东多数民族语言中的方言多样性是一种经常被低估的丰富性。以土耳其语为例,尽管学校教授的是一种标准语言,媒体和政界也使用这种语言,但许多地区方言并存,反映了土耳其不同地区的历史和文化。这些方言在发音、词汇甚至语法方面都与标准土耳其语有很大不同。阿拉伯语也许是这种方言多样性最显著的例子之一。文学阿拉伯语或现代标准阿拉伯语被普遍理解并用于写作和正式讲话中,但在日常生活中,人们使用的各种方言却可能大相径庭,以至于来自遥远地区的人有时很难相互理解。这些方言不仅反映了地理区域,还反映了历史影响,如奥斯曼人、波斯人和法国人在黎凡特的影响。库尔德语也分为几种主要方言,如库尔曼吉语(Kurmandji)、索拉尼语(Sorani)和佩勒瓦尼语(Pehlewani),每种方言都有自己的地区变体。这些库尔德方言之间的差异如此之大,以至于有时会有人要求获得独立的语言地位。至于亚美尼亚语,虽然有一种标准的亚美尼亚语,但世界各地的亚美尼亚人也讲不同的方言,这些方言往往受到他们移居或散居地区语言的影响。除这些主要语言外,中东地区还有约 20 种少数民族语言,反映了人类交流、迁移和适应的复杂历史。这些语言可能只在少数族群中使用,但它们所承载的历史和文化值得认可和保护。它们在如此丰富的语言环境中存在,进一步证明了语言是如何演变并适应其使用环境的,而且往往与该地区的主流语言并行不悖。


=== Languages and National Identity: Between Politics and Culture ===  
=== 语言与国家认同:政治与文化之间 ===


Population movements and religion have been powerful vectors in the spread and evolution of languages in the Middle East, as in the rest of the world. Historically, migration has played a crucial role in the dispersion of languages. For example, the Arab invasions of the seventh century, driven by the expansion of Islam, spread the Arabic language across the Middle East and North Africa. This expansion not only spread the Arabic language, but also integrated and influenced local languages, giving rise to a multitude of distinct Arabic dialects. Similarly, the expansion of the Turkic empires, in particular the Ottoman Empire, extended the Turkic languages and established Ottoman Turkish (a form of Turkish influenced by Persian and Arabic) as an administrative and literary language throughout the Middle East, the Balkans and North Africa. Religions also facilitated the adoption and standardisation of languages. Arabic, as the language of the Koran, became a linguistic link between Muslims around the world, extending its use beyond traditional Arabic-speaking borders. Similarly, Judaic and Christian religious texts helped to preserve Hebrew and Aramaic, even when these languages were no longer spoken on a daily basis. The languages of the Middle East are not static; they are the result of constant interaction between peoples, their beliefs and their histories. Languages have been spread through trade, conquest, colonisation and conversion, shaping the complex linguistic landscape we see today.
与世界其他地区一样,人口迁移和宗教一直是中东地区语言传播和演变的强大媒介。从历史上看,人口迁移对语言的传播起着至关重要的作用。例如,七世纪阿拉伯人在伊斯兰教扩张的推动下入侵,将阿拉伯语传播到中东和北非。这种扩张不仅传播了阿拉伯语,还融合并影响了当地语言,产生了多种不同的阿拉伯方言。同样,突厥帝国的扩张,尤其是奥斯曼帝国的扩张,扩展了突厥语,并在整个中东、巴尔干和北非建立了奥斯曼土耳其语(一种受波斯语和阿拉伯语影响的土耳其语)作为行政和文学语言。宗教也促进了语言的采用和标准化。阿拉伯语作为《古兰经》的语言,成为世界各地穆斯林之间的语言纽带,其使用范围超出了传统的阿拉伯语边界。同样,犹太教和基督教的宗教经文也帮助保存了希伯来语和阿拉米语,即使这些语言已不再被日常使用。中东的语言并非一成不变;它们是各民族、信仰和历史之间不断互动的结果。语言通过贸易、征服、殖民和皈依而传播,形成了我们今天看到的复杂的语言景观。


The formation of nation-states in the modern Middle East has had a considerable impact on linguistic practices. By establishing one or more official languages, states have often sought to promote a unified national identity and to facilitate communication and administration within their borders. This language policy can lead to a heightened sense of nationalism, where the official language becomes a symbol of national unity and a key factor in collective identity. For example, the promotion of standard Turkish in Turkey after the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the Turkish Republic in 1923 aimed to unify the country's diverse populations under a single Turkish national identity. Similarly, the adoption of Modern Standard Arabic in Arabic-speaking countries has often been associated with pan-Arab nationalist movements. However, standardisation and the promotion of a state language can also have unintended consequences, notably by marginalising regional or minority languages and dialects. This can lead to a decline in their public use and sometimes to an erosion of their long-term viability, or even to their disappearance. For example, many Kurdish minority languages and dialects have been suppressed in various countries in an effort to achieve cultural assimilation.
现代中东民族国家的形成对语言实践产生了相当大的影响。通过建立一种或多种官方语言,国家往往寻求促进统一的民族身份认同,并促进其境内的交流和管理。这种语言政策可能导致民族主义意识的增强,使官方语言成为民族团结的象征和集体认同的关键因素。例如,奥斯曼帝国灭亡后,土耳其于 1923 年建立了土耳其共和国,在土耳其推广标准土耳其语的目的是将该国不同的人口统一在一个单一的土耳其民族身份之下。同样,阿拉伯语国家采用现代标准阿拉伯语也常常与泛阿拉伯民族主义运动联系在一起。然而,标准化和推广国语也可能产生意想不到的后果,特别是会使地区或少数民族语言和方言边缘化。这可能导致其公共使用率下降,有时还会削弱其长期生存能力,甚至导致其消失。例如,许多库尔德少数民族语言和方言在不同国家受到压制,以实现文化同化。


Paradoxically, the banning or repression of certain languages can also lead to renewed interest in these languages and dialects, which are often seen as essential elements of a community's cultural identity. In some cases, this can lead to linguistic and cultural protest movements. The suppression of the public use of Armenian in Turkey for many years has, for example, led to increased awareness and appreciation of the language among Armenian communities around the world. Ultimately, language policies in the Middle East reflect the tension between the construction of national identities and the preservation of cultural and linguistic diversity. Responses to these policies are diverse and can range from enthusiastic adoption of the state language to resistance and maintenance of traditional languages as an act of cultural preservation and political resistance.
自相矛盾的是,禁止或压制某些语言也可能导致人们对这些语言和方言重新产生兴趣,因为这些语言和方言往往被视为一个社区文化特性的基本要素。在某些情况下,这会引发语言和文化抗议运动。例如,土耳其多年来一直压制亚美尼亚语的公开使用,这导致世界各地的亚美尼亚社区对该语言的认识和欣赏有所提高。归根结底,中东的语言政策反映了构建民族特性与保护文化和语言多样性之间的矛盾。对这些政策的反应多种多样,既有对国语的热情采用,也有作为一种文化保护和政治反抗行为对传统语言的抵制和维护。


=Panorama of Religious Beliefs=
=宗教信仰全景=
   
   
The Middle East is often defined broadly to include regions such as Anatolia (the Asian part of modern Turkey), Egypt (although geographically located in North Africa, it is culturally and historically linked to the Middle East), and Mesopotamia (corresponding to the territories of modern Iraq and Syria, as well as parts of Iran and Turkey). This region, rich in cultural and historical diversity, is recognised as the cradle of several of the world's major religions.
中东通常被广义地定义为包括安纳托利亚(现代土耳其的亚洲部分)、埃及(虽然在地理上位于北非,但在文化和历史上与中东有联系)和美索不达米亚(相当于现代伊拉克和叙利亚的领土,以及伊朗和土耳其的部分地区)等地区。该地区具有丰富的文化和历史多样性,被公认为世界几大宗教的发祥地。


Judaism, one of the first monotheistic religions, emerged in the Levant, particularly in the historic region of Canaan, which is now divided between Israel and the Palestinian territories. With its roots dating back more than 3,000 years, Judaism has played a central role in the religious and cultural development of the region. Christianity, which grew out of Judaism in the 1st century AD, also has its origins in the Middle East, specifically in the historic region of Judea. It spread rapidly throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, becoming a major world religion. Islam, the most recent of the three great Abrahamic religions, was revealed to the prophet Mohammed in the early 7th century in the Arabian city of Mecca. It spread rapidly across the Arabian Peninsula and, through conquest and trade, to vast areas of Asia, Africa and Europe. In addition to these Abrahamic religions, the Middle East is also the birthplace of Zoroastrianism, which was founded by the prophet Zarathustra (or Zoroaster) in ancient Persia, modern-day Iran. Zoroastrianism, which was one of the dominant religions of Persia before Islamisation, is often considered to be one of the oldest monotheistic religions and has influenced other religious traditions through its dualistic concepts of the struggle between good and evil.
犹太教是最早的一神教之一,兴起于黎凡特地区,特别是历史上的迦南地区,该地区现划分为以色列和巴勒斯坦领土。犹太教的根源可追溯到 3000 多年前,在该地区的宗教和文化发展中发挥了核心作用。公元 1 世纪从犹太教发展而来的基督教也起源于中东,特别是历史上的犹太地区。它在罗马帝国内外迅速传播,成为世界主要宗教。伊斯兰教是亚伯拉罕三大宗教中的最新宗教,7 世纪初先知穆罕默德在阿拉伯城市麦加得到启示。它迅速传遍阿拉伯半岛,并通过征服和贸易,传播到亚洲、非洲和欧洲的广大地区。除了这些亚伯拉罕宗教外,中东还是琐罗亚斯德教的发源地,琐罗亚斯德教由先知查拉图斯特拉(或琐罗亚斯德)在古波斯(今伊朗)创立。琐罗亚斯德教是伊斯兰教化之前波斯的主要宗教之一,通常被认为是最古老的一神教之一,其善恶斗争的二元论观念影响了其他宗教传统。


Each of these religions has contributed to the rich cultural and historical tapestry of the region and continues to profoundly influence the lives, cultures and politics of the modern Middle East. Religious diversity and historical depth make the Middle East a place of particular importance to scholars, believers and visitors from all over the world.
每种宗教都为该地区丰富的文化和历史锦绣做出了贡献,并继续深刻影响着现代中东的生活、文化和政治。宗教的多样性和深厚的历史底蕴使中东对世界各地的学者、信徒和游客具有特别重要的意义。


==The Foundations and Evolution of Judaism==
==犹太教的基础和演变==


=== Early Judaism and Monotheism ===  
=== 早期犹太教和一神论 ===


Judaism is recognised as one of the first monotheistic religions in history. Emerging in the region of the Levant, which today corresponds to Israel and the surrounding area, Judaism has played a crucial role in the religious and cultural development of humanity. The origins of Judaism date back to around 2000 BC, with the biblical figures of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, considered to be the patriarchs of the religion. Judaism is centred on belief in a single God, YHWH (Yahweh), and a series of laws and ethical principles expressed in the Torah, part of the larger collection of sacred texts known as the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. What distinguishes Judaism from the other religious traditions of its time is its strict monotheism. While many ancient cultures adhered to polytheism, Judaism affirmed the existence of a single sovereign God, creator of the universe and moral guide of humanity.
犹太教被认为是历史上最早的一神教之一。犹太教兴起于今天的以色列及其周边地区的黎凡特地区,在人类的宗教和文化发展中发挥了至关重要的作用。犹太教的起源可追溯到公元前 2000 年左右,《圣经》中的亚伯拉罕、以撒和雅各被视为犹太教的始祖。犹太教的核心是信仰唯一的神--耶和华(Yahweh),以及《托拉》(Torah)中表达的一系列法律和道德原则,《托拉》是被称为 "塔纳赫"(Tanakh)或 "希伯来圣经"(Hebrew Bible)的大型圣典集的一部分。犹太教与当时其他宗教传统的区别在于其严格的一神论。许多古代文化都信奉多神教,而犹太教则肯定存在一个唯一的主神,他是宇宙的创造者,也是人类的道德指南。


In addition to its religious dimension, Judaism also has a strong ethnic and cultural dimension. Jews see themselves not only as adherents of a faith, but also as members of a people or nation, bound together by a shared history and traditions. Over the centuries, Judaism has significantly influenced many other religious beliefs and practices, in particular Christianity and Islam, which share certain roots with Judaism and recognise many Jewish biblical figures as prophets or important teachers.
除了宗教层面,犹太教还具有强烈的民族和文化层面。犹太人认为自己不仅是一种信仰的信徒,也是一个民族或国家的成员,共同的历史和传统将他们联系在一起。几个世纪以来,犹太教对许多其他宗教信仰和习俗产生了重大影响,尤其是基督教和伊斯兰教,它们与犹太教有着某些渊源,并承认圣经中的许多犹太人物是先知或重要导师。


=== Abraham and the Jewish line of patriarchs ===  
=== 亚伯拉罕和犹太族长世系 ===


Abraham, often regarded as the father of monotheism, is a central figure in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was born in Ur in Mesopotamia, not Edessa in Greece. Edessa is a historic city in Turkey, known as Urfa, but it is not linked to the story of Abraham in the biblical texts. The biblical account describes his journey from Mesopotamia to Canaan at the behest of God, who promised to make of his descendants a great nation. Abraham's complex relationship with his wife Sarah and her slave Hagar is a crucial element of the story. Sarah, unable to have children, gives Hagar to Abraham, from whom Ishmael is born. Sara later gave birth to Isaac. In Jewish tradition, Isaac is the son of promise, and Jews consider themselves to be his descendants. In Islamic tradition, it is Ishmael who is often seen as the son of promise, although Islam also recognises the importance of Isaac. Isaac's son Jacob is also a key figure. According to tradition, he had 12 sons, whose descendants became the Twelve Tribes of Israel, marking the formation of the Hebrew people.
亚伯拉罕通常被视为一神教之父,是犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教的核心人物。根据犹太教传统,亚伯拉罕出生在美索不达米亚的乌尔,而不是希腊的埃德萨。埃德萨是土耳其的一座历史名城,被称为乌尔法,但在《圣经》中与亚伯拉罕的故事并无关联。圣经》中描述了亚伯拉罕奉上帝之命从美索不达米亚前往迦南的旅程,上帝许诺要让亚伯拉罕的后裔成为一个伟大的民族。亚伯拉罕与妻子撒拉及其奴隶夏甲之间复杂的关系是故事的关键因素。无法生育的撒拉将夏甲送给亚伯拉罕,生下了以实玛利。萨拉后来生下了以撒。在犹太传统中,以撒是应许之子,犹太人认为自己是他的后裔。在伊斯兰教传统中,以实玛利通常被视为应许之子,尽管伊斯兰教也承认以撒的重要性。以撒的儿子雅各布也是一个重要人物。根据传统,他有 12 个儿子,他们的后代成为以色列的十二个部落,标志着希伯来人的形成。


=== The Egyptian Exodus and the Revelation at Mount Sinai ===  
=== 埃及出埃及记和西奈山的启示 ===


The story of slavery in Egypt is another fundamental part of Jewish history. After living in Egypt, the Hebrews were enslaved and, centuries later, freed under the leadership of Moses, another central figure in Jewish tradition. This exit from Egypt, known as the Exodus, is a key event in Jewish history and is celebrated every year at Pesach (Passover). These stories are not only religious narratives, but have also shaped the cultural and historical identity of the Jewish people. They underline the ongoing relationship between the Jewish people, their land and their faith, a relationship that remains central to the understanding of Jewish culture and history.
在埃及为奴的故事是犹太历史的另一个基本部分。希伯来人在埃及生活了几个世纪后,在犹太传统中的另一位核心人物摩西的领导下获得了自由。出埃及被称为 "出埃及记",是犹太历史上的一个重要事件,每年的逾越节(Pesach)都会庆祝这一事件。这些故事不仅是宗教叙事,也塑造了犹太民族的文化和历史身份。它们强调了犹太人、他们的土地和他们的信仰之间持续不断的关系,这种关系对于理解犹太文化和历史仍然至关重要。


The figure of Moses and the event of revelation at Mount Sinai are among the most significant in Jewish tradition and have a profound importance in the history and identity of the Jewish people. According to the biblical account, Moses, a Hebrew brought up in Pharaoh's house in Egypt, is chosen by God to free the Israelites from slavery. After a series of miraculous events, including the ten plagues of Egypt, Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt, an event known as the Exodus. The Exodus represents not only the physical liberation of the Jewish people, but also their emergence as a united nation under God.
摩西的形象和西奈山的启示事件是犹太传统中最重要的事件之一,在犹太民族的历史和身份认同中具有深远的意义。根据《圣经》的记载,摩西是在埃及法老家中长大的希伯来人,他被上帝选中,将以色列人从奴役中解救出来。在经历了包括埃及十灾在内的一系列奇迹之后,摩西带领以色列人离开了埃及,这一事件被称为 "出埃及记"。出埃及记》不仅代表了犹太民族的肉体解放,还代表了他们作为一个在上帝领导下的统一民族的崛起。


The most crucial moment of their journey is the revelation at Mount Sinai, where, according to tradition, God (Yahweh) gives Moses the Torah, including the Ten Commandments. This moment is seen as the fundamental covenant between God and the Israelites, where they receive a set of laws and instructions to guide their spiritual and social lives. The Torah, which is the heart of Judaism, includes not only the laws and teachings, but also the history of the Jewish people since the creation of the world. The Ten Commandments are particularly significant because they establish fundamental moral and ethical principles, not only for Judaism, but also for Christianity and, indirectly, for Islam. They are considered the cornerstone of law and ethics in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The importance of these events in Judaism cannot be underestimated. Not only are they at the heart of the Jewish faith, but they have also shaped the values, practices and identity of the Jewish people. The commemoration of the Exodus on Pesach and the reception of the Torah on Shavuot are examples of how these historical events are integrated into the annual cycle of Jewish festivals and celebrations, constantly reminding the Jewish people of their history and their commitments to God.
他们旅程中最关键的时刻是西奈山的启示,根据传统,上帝(耶和华)在那里赐予摩西《圣经》,包括十诫。这一时刻被视为上帝与以色列人之间的基本盟约,他们在此接受了一套指导其精神和社会生活的法律和指令。作为犹太教核心的《圣经》不仅包括律法和教义,还包括犹太民族自创世以来的历史。十诫》尤为重要,因为它们不仅为犹太教,也为基督教,甚至间接为伊斯兰教确立了基本的道德和伦理原则。它们被视为犹太教-基督教传统中法律和道德的基石。这些事件在犹太教中的重要性不容低估。它们不仅是犹太教信仰的核心,也塑造了犹太民族的价值观、习俗和身份。在逾越节(Pesach)上纪念出埃及和在沙窝奥特节(Shavuot)上接受《圣经》,就是这些历史事件如何融入犹太节日和庆祝活动年度周期的例子,不断提醒犹太人民他们的历史和对上帝的承诺。


=== The Conquest of Canaan and the Age of the Prophets ===  
=== 征服迦南和先知时代 ===


After their Exodus from Egypt and their journey through the desert, the Israelites, led by Joshua, entered Canaan, a land which, according to the Bible, had been promised by God to their ancestors. This process, described in the biblical texts, involves a series of battles and conquests to establish the Israelite presence in the region. However, it is important to note that the historical accuracy of these events as described in the Bible is a matter of debate among historians and archaeologists.
出埃及和穿越沙漠之后,以色列人在约书亚的带领下进入了迦南,根据《圣经》记载,这是上帝应许给他们祖先的一块土地。圣经》中描述的这一过程包括一系列战斗和征服,以建立以色列人在该地区的存在。然而,必须指出的是,《圣经》中描述的这些事件的历史准确性在历史学家和考古学家之间存在争议。


King David, who reigned in the 10th century BC, is a central figure in the history of the Jewish people. According to tradition, he united the tribes of Israel, conquered Jerusalem and made it the capital of his kingdom. Jerusalem acquired central importance in Jewish tradition, not only as a political centre, but also as a spiritual one. His son, King Solomon, is famous for having built the First Temple in Jerusalem. This temple became the centre of Jewish worship and was supposed to house the Ark of the Covenant, which contained the tablets of the Law (the Ten Commandments) given to Moses on Mount Sinai. Solomon's Temple is not only a symbol of the sovereignty and unity of the Kingdom of Israel, but also a place of great religious significance for the Jews.
公元前 10 世纪在位的大卫王是犹太民族历史上的核心人物。根据传统,他统一了以色列各部落,征服了耶路撒冷,并将其作为王国的首都。耶路撒冷在犹太传统中占据了重要地位,不仅是政治中心,也是精神中心。他的儿子所罗门王因在耶路撒冷建造了第一圣殿而闻名于世。这座圣殿成为犹太人崇拜的中心,并被认为是约柜的所在,约柜里装有在西奈山赐给摩西的律法石板(十诫)。所罗门圣殿不仅是以色列王国主权和统一的象征,也是对犹太人具有重要宗教意义的地方。


The period of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah was also marked by the activity of prophets, important figures in Jewish tradition. These prophets, such as Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, played a crucial role in advising kings, criticising social and moral injustices and reminding people of God's commandments. Their message and writings form an important part of the biblical texts and continue to influence Jewish religious thought. This period was fundamental in shaping Jewish identity and faith. It established Jerusalem as the spiritual heart of Judaism and laid the foundations for many of the practices and beliefs that are still central to contemporary Judaism.
以色列王国和犹大王国时期,犹太传统中的重要人物--先知们的活动也是这一时期的特点。这些先知,如以赛亚、耶利米和以西结,在为国王出谋划策、批评社会和道德不公以及提醒人们谨记上帝诫命方面发挥了至关重要的作用。他们的信息和著作是圣经文本的重要组成部分,并继续影响着犹太宗教思想。这一时期对塑造犹太人的身份和信仰至关重要。它确立了耶路撒冷作为犹太教精神核心的地位,并为许多仍是当代犹太教核心的习俗和信仰奠定了基础。


After the death of Solomon, around 926 BC, the unified kingdom of Israel split into two: the northern kingdom, called Israel, with Samaria as its capital, and the southern kingdom, called Judah, with Jerusalem as its capital. This division reflected not only political and economic tensions, but also religious and cultural differences between the two kingdoms. The northern kingdom, Israel, was larger in terms of territory and population, but it was also more vulnerable to outside influences and invasions because of its geographical position.
所罗门死后,约公元前 926 年,统一的以色列王国一分为二:北方王国称为以色列,以撒玛利亚为首都;南方王国称为犹大,以耶路撒冷为首都。这种分裂不仅反映了政治和经济上的紧张关系,也反映了两个王国在宗教和文化上的差异。北方王国以色列在领土和人口方面都更大,但由于其地理位置,它也更容易受到外部影响和入侵。


The northern kingdom finally suffered a devastating defeat in 722 BC, when the Assyrians, a powerful empire at the time, invaded and conquered Samaria. This event marked the end of the kingdom of Israel, with a large part of its population deported and dispersed, a phenomenon often referred to as the "Lost Ten Tribes of Israel". This deportation and dispersion had profound consequences, not only politically and militarily, but also in terms of cultural and religious identity. The southern kingdom, Judah, survived this period but became vassals of various empires, including the Neo-Babylonian Empire. However, Judah too eventually fell, with the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the First Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC, followed by the Babylonian exile of the Judean elite. These events are of major importance in Jewish history. They mark not only political and military turning points, but also crucial moments of cultural and religious transformation. The experiences of conquest, exile and return had a profound influence on Jewish thought and literature, notably with the writing of numerous biblical texts and the strengthening of Jewish identity and faith around the Torah and the religious community.
公元前 722 年,当时强大的亚述帝国入侵并征服了撒玛利亚,北方王国最终遭受了毁灭性的失败。这一事件标志着以色列王国的灭亡,大部分人口被驱逐和驱散,这一现象通常被称为 "失落的以色列十部落"。这种驱逐和分散不仅在政治和军事上,而且在文化和宗教认同方面都产生了深远的影响。南方的犹大王国在这一时期幸存下来,但成为包括新巴比伦帝国在内的多个帝国的附庸。然而,随着公元前 586 年巴比伦人征服耶路撒冷并摧毁第一圣殿,犹大最终也灭亡了,随后巴比伦人流放了犹大的精英。这些事件在犹太历史上具有重要意义。它们不仅是政治和军事上的转折点,也是文化和宗教变革的关键时刻。征服、流放和回归的经历对犹太人的思想和文学产生了深远的影响,尤其是《圣经》中大量经文的写作,以及围绕《圣经》和宗教团体对犹太人身份和信仰的强化。


=== The Dislocation of the Kingdoms and the Dawn of the Diaspora ===  
===王国的迁移和散居的黎明===


The destruction of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians in 722 BC represented the first major catastrophe (or "Churban" in Hebrew) for the Israelites. This invasion led to the dispersion of the ten tribes of the northern kingdom, an event often referred to in the context of the "Lost Ten Tribes of Israel". This dispersion had a profound impact on the collective identity and historical memory of the Jewish people. In response to these hardships and the challenges of living in exile and under foreign domination, Jewish rabbis and scholars played an essential role in preserving and interpreting Jewish tradition. However, it is important to note that the Mishna, which is a major compilation of Jewish oral law, was written later, towards the end of the 2nd century AD, well after the time of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Mishna, combined with the Gemara (a commentary on the Mishna), forms the Talmud, a central text in rabbinic Judaism.
公元前 722 年,亚述人摧毁了以色列王国,这对以色列人来说是第一次重大灾难(希伯来语称 "Churban")。这次入侵导致北方王国的十个部落离散,也就是人们常说的 "以色列失落的十个部落"。这一离散对犹太民族的集体身份和历史记忆产生了深远的影响。为了应对这些艰难困苦以及在流亡和外国统治下生活的挑战,犹太拉比和学者在保存和解释犹太传统方面发挥了至关重要的作用。不过,需要注意的是,作为犹太口头律法主要汇编的《密西拿》成书较晚,大约在公元 2 世纪末,远在以色列和犹太王国时期之后。密西拿》与《革马拉》(对《密西拿》的注释)一起构成了犹太法典,是拉比犹太教的核心文本。


The Tanakh comprises the Torah (the five books of Moses), the Nevi'im (the Prophets) and the Ketuvim (the Writings, including the Psalms). Prophets such as Elijah, Isaiah and Jeremiah, who lived at different times, played a crucial role in the religious and social life of the Israelites, sending messages of reform, social justice and faithfulness to God. These prophets often acted during periods of crisis and change, their teachings and actions reflecting the challenges facing the Jewish people. Their writings, which form part of the Nevi'im, are fundamental to understanding Judaism, Jewish spirituality and the history of the Jewish people. These texts have played a crucial role in preserving Jewish identity and have been a source of strength and inspiration, particularly during periods of persecution and dispersion.
塔纳赫包括《托拉》(摩西五经)、《先知书》(Nevi'im)和《文集》(Ketuvim,包括诗篇)。以利亚、以赛亚和耶利米等先知生活在不同时期,他们在以色列人的宗教和社会生活中发挥着至关重要的作用,传递着改革、社会正义和忠于上帝的信息。这些先知往往在危机和变革时期行事,他们的教诲和行动反映了犹太民族面临的挑战。他们的著作是《内维亚姆》(Nevi'im)的一部分,是了解犹太教、犹太教精神和犹太民族历史的基础。这些经文在维护犹太特性方面发挥了至关重要的作用,是力量和灵感的源泉,尤其是在遭受迫害和分散的时期。


The destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II, king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, in 587 BC was a major catastrophe for the Jewish people. This destruction, accompanied by the deportation of a large part of the Jewish population to Mesopotamia, was a devastating event that deeply marked the Jewish collective consciousness. The Babylonian Exile symbolised not only a territorial and political loss, but also a profound spiritual and identity crisis, forcing the Jews to rethink their relationship with God, their history and their identity as a people. The return of the Jews to Judea began with the rise of Cyrus the Great, king of the Persian Empire, who conquered Babylon in 539 BC. Cyrus is known for his policy of tolerance and restoration of displaced peoples, including the Jews. According to the Book of Ezra in the Bible, Cyrus issued an edict allowing the Jews to return to Judea and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. This return began around 538 BC and marked a moment of renewal for the Jewish community.
公元前 587 年,新巴比伦帝国国王尼布甲尼撒二世摧毁了耶路撒冷的第一圣殿,这对犹太人来说是一场重大灾难。这次毁灭伴随着大部分犹太人被驱逐到美索不达米亚,是一次毁灭性的事件,给犹太人的集体意识打上了深深的烙印。巴比伦流放不仅象征着领土和政治上的损失,也象征着深刻的精神和身份危机,迫使犹太人重新思考他们与上帝的关系、他们的历史和他们作为一个民族的身份。公元前 539 年,波斯帝国国王居鲁士大帝征服巴比伦,犹太人开始返回犹太。居鲁士以其宽容和恢复包括犹太人在内的流离失所民族的政策而闻名。根据《圣经》中《以斯拉记》的记载,居鲁士曾颁布诏书,允许犹太人返回犹太并重建耶路撒冷的圣殿。这次回归始于公元前 538 年左右,标志着犹太社区的复兴。


The Second Temple was rebuilt, but construction did not begin under Herod the Great. The process of rebuilding the Temple began much earlier, around 516 BC, thus completing the 70-year period of exile prophesied in the Scriptures. The Second Temple remained a major religious and community centre for the Jews until its destruction by the Romans in 70 AD. Herod the Great, who reigned much later (37-4 BC), is known to have undertaken a major renovation and expansion of the Second Temple, giving it even greater splendour and magnificence. It was this version of the Temple, enlarged and embellished by Herod, that was present at the time of Jesus and is often referred to in the New Testament.
第二圣殿得以重建,但在希律大帝时期并未开始建造。重建圣殿的过程开始得更早,大约在公元前 516 年,从而完成了《圣经》中预言的 70 年流亡期。第二圣殿一直是犹太人的主要宗教和社区中心,直到公元 70 年被罗马人摧毁。希律大帝在位时间更晚(公元前 37-4 年),据说他对第二圣殿进行了大规模的翻修和扩建,使其更加辉煌壮丽。经希律大帝扩建和美化后的圣殿正是耶稣时代的圣殿,《新约圣经》中经常提到它。


=== The Evolution of Post-Temple Judaism and Jewish Communities ===  
=== 圣殿后犹太教和犹太社区的演变 ===


Palestine came under Roman rule after the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered the region, marking the beginning of the Hellenistic period. After Alexander's death, the region came under the control of various Hellenistic dynasties, notably the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. It was not until the 1st century BC that Judea became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire. Under Roman rule, the Jews experienced periods of repression, exacerbated by religious and cultural tensions and heavy taxation. The destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD, under the command of the future emperor Titus, was a devastating event for the Jewish people. This destruction followed the Great Jewish Revolt against Roman domination. The loss of the Temple, regarded as the spiritual and national centre of Judaism, had profound consequences for Jewish religious identity and practice. Following the destruction of the Temple, the dispersion (or "Diaspora") of the Jews accelerated. Although there were already dispersed Jewish communities throughout the ancient world before the destruction of the Temple (for example in Egypt, Babylonia, Greece and Italy), this event marked the beginning of a wider and more systematic period of dispersion. Many Jews fled or were deported from Judea and settled in different parts of the Roman Empire and beyond. This dispersion had a lasting impact on Judaism. Without the Temple as a centre of worship, Judaism evolved, with an increased emphasis on prayer, the study of sacred texts and religious practice in the synagogues. The Jewish diaspora became a central element of Jewish identity, with the notion of a people united by faith and history, despite geographical dispersion.
公元前 1 世纪罗马征服巴勒斯坦后,巴勒斯坦被罗马统治。公元前 332 年,马其顿的亚历山大大帝征服了该地区,标志着希腊化时期的开始。亚历山大死后,该地区被多个希腊王朝控制,特别是埃及的托勒密王朝和叙利亚的塞琉西王朝。直到公元前 1 世纪,犹太才成为罗马帝国的一个客户王国。在罗马的统治下,犹太人经历了一段时期的压迫,宗教和文化上的紧张关系以及沉重的赋税加剧了这种压迫。公元 70 年,罗马人在未来皇帝提图斯的指挥下摧毁了耶路撒冷的第二圣殿,这对犹太人来说是一个毁灭性事件。这次毁灭发生在犹太人反抗罗马统治的大起义之后。圣殿被视为犹太教的精神和民族中心,圣殿的消失对犹太人的宗教认同和宗教实践产生了深远的影响。圣殿被毁后,犹太人加速了流散(或称 "散居")。虽然在圣殿被毁之前,整个古代世界已经有分散的犹太人社区(例如在埃及、巴比伦、希腊和意大利),但这一事件标志着一个更广泛、更系统的分散时期的开始。许多犹太人逃离或被驱逐出犹太,在罗马帝国内外的不同地区定居下来。这种流散对犹太教产生了持久的影响。没有了圣殿作为敬拜中心,犹太教发生了演变,更加强调祈祷、研读圣典和在犹太会堂进行宗教活动。散居各地的犹太人成为犹太人身份认同的一个核心要素,尽管他们分散在不同的地域,但他们的信仰和历史将他们团结在一起。


The transition of identity from "Hebrews" to "Jews" is an important aspect of Jewish history, and is linked to a number of factors, including the loss of territory and political changes. The term "Hebrews" (Ivrim in Hebrew) was originally used in the Hebrew Bible to refer to the ancestors of the Israelites, particularly in the context of their relations with other peoples. The term is often associated with earlier periods of Jewish history, in particular the time of the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob) and the Exodus from Egypt. The term "Jews" (Yehudim in Hebrew), on the other hand, comes from "Judah" (Yehuda), one of the twelve sons of Jacob and one of the twelve tribes of Israel. After the division of the united kingdom into two distinct kingdoms, Israel (to the north) and Judah (to the south), and the fall of the kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians, the kingdom of Judah became the centre of Israelite identity. When the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple and exiled a large part of the population of Judah, these people were referred to as the "Yehudim" or "Jews".
"希伯来人 ""犹太人 "的身份转变是犹太历史的一个重要方面,与领土丧失和政治变革等多种因素有关。希伯来人"(希伯来语 Ivrim)一词最初在《希伯来圣经》中用来指以色列人的祖先,尤其是在他们与其他民族的关系中。该词通常与犹太历史的早期时期有关,尤其是族长(亚伯拉罕、以撒、雅各)和出埃及时期。另一方面,"犹太人"(希伯来语为 Yehudim)一词来源于 "犹大"(Yehuda),犹大是雅各布的十二个儿子之一,也是以色列十二个部落之一。在统一王国分裂为以色列(在北)和犹大(在南)两个不同的王国,以及以色列王国落入亚述人之手后,犹大王国成为以色列人身份认同的中心。当巴比伦人摧毁第一圣殿并流放大部分犹大人时,这些人被称为 "Yehudim ""犹太人"


With the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 AD and the subsequent dispersion of the Jews, Jewish identity became even more centred on religion and culture, rather than on a specific territory or political sovereignty. The term 'Jew' thus became synonymous with a religious and cultural affiliation, rather than simply an ethnic or national one. The loss of territory and political changes undoubtedly played a part in this evolution, but the transition from "Hebrews" to "Jews" also reflects an internal evolution in the people's understanding and self-identification. Thus, the term 'Jew' encompasses a religious, cultural and ethnic identity, transcending geographical and political boundaries.
公元 70 年,罗马人摧毁了第二圣殿,犹太人随之流散,犹太人的身份认同更加以宗教和文化为中心,而不是以特定的领土或政治主权为中心。因此,"犹太人 "一词成为宗教和文化归属的同义词,而不仅仅是种族或民族归属。领土的丧失和政治的变迁无疑在这一演变中起到了一定的作用,但从 "希伯来人 "到 "犹太人 "的转变也反映了该民族在理解和自我认同方面的内在演变。因此,"犹太人 "一词包含了宗教、文化和种族认同,超越了地理和政治界限。


=== Jewish languages and cultures around the world ===  
=== 世界各地的犹太语言和文化 ===


Ashkenazi Jews, originally from Central and Eastern Europe, developed a unique language and culture. Yiddish, their language, is a remarkable example of this distinctive culture. Yiddish is a Germanic language that incorporates elements of Hebrew and Slavic languages, reflecting the history and experiences of Ashkenazi Jews. This language was not only a tool of everyday communication, but also an important vehicle for Ashkenazi Jewish literature, theatre and poetry. On the other hand, Sephardic Jews, mainly from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), developed another hybrid language known as Ladino or Judeo-Spanish. Ladino, similar to Yiddish, blends Spanish with Hebrew and other languages such as Turkish and Arabic, reflecting the migrations and interactions of Sephardic Jews after their expulsion from Spain in 1492.
最初来自中欧和东欧的阿什肯纳兹犹太人发展了独特的语言和文化。他们的语言意第绪语就是这种独特文化的杰出代表。意第绪语是一种日耳曼语,融合了希伯来语和斯拉夫语的元素,反映了阿什肯纳兹犹太人的历史和经历。这种语言不仅是日常交流的工具,也是阿什肯纳兹犹太人文学、戏剧和诗歌的重要载体。另一方面,主要来自伊比利亚半岛(西班牙和葡萄牙)的塞法尔迪犹太人发展了另一种混合语言,即拉迪诺语或犹太西班牙语。拉迪诺语与意第绪语类似,融合了西班牙语、希伯来语以及土耳其语和阿拉伯语等其他语言,反映了 1492 年塞法迪犹太人被逐出西班牙后的迁徙和交往。


In terms of religious practices, Judaism is diverse. Orthodox practices adhere strictly to Jewish laws and traditions, while Reform or Liberal (also known as Progressive or Moderate) movements tend to adopt more flexible interpretations and practices. There are also conservative and reconstructionist movements, which seek a balance between adherence to tradition and adaptation to contemporary realities. This diversity reflects Judaism's ability to evolve and adapt while preserving its identity and fundamental values. Different Jewish communities around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or of other origins, have contributed to the rich tapestry of Jewish culture and tradition, each bringing its own unique perspectives and experiences.
在宗教习俗方面,犹太教多种多样。正统派严格遵守犹太律法和传统,而改革派或自由派(又称进步派或温和派)则倾向于采用更为灵活的解释和做法。此外,还有保守主义和重建主义运动,它们在坚持传统和适应当代现实之间寻求平衡。这种多样性反映了犹太教在保持其特性和基本价值观的同时不断发展和适应的能力。世界各地不同的犹太社区,无论是阿什肯纳兹、塞法尔迪还是其他血统,都为丰富多彩的犹太文化和传统做出了贡献,每个社区都带来了自己独特的观点和经验。


==The Origins and Branches of Christianity==
==基督教的起源和分支====


=== The expansion of Christianity in the Roman Empire ===  
=== 基督教在罗马帝国的扩展 ===


Christianity is centred on the figure of Jesus of Nazareth, whom Christians recognise as the Messiah (the Christ) and the Son of God. His birth, life, teaching, death and resurrection are at the heart of the Christian faith.  
基督教以拿撒勒人耶稣为中心,基督徒承认他是弥赛亚(基督)和上帝之子。他的出生、生活、教导、死亡和复活是基督教信仰的核心。  


According to the New Testament, Jesus was born in Bethlehem, a small town in Judea. The accounts of his birth are recounted in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, which mention the virgin birth of Mary, his mother, and the announcement of his birth by angels as an event of great importance. Jesus spent most of his life in the region of Galilee, preaching a message of love, compassion and repentance, calling for spiritual renewal and a personal relationship with God. He gathered a group of disciples around him and performed various miracles, according to the Gospel accounts.
根据《新约圣经》,耶稣出生在犹太的一个小镇伯利恒。马太福音》和《路加福音》记述了耶稣出生的经过,其中提到耶稣的母亲马利亚是童贞女,天使宣布耶稣降生是一件非常重要的事情。耶稣一生的大部分时间都在加利利地区度过,他宣讲爱、怜悯和悔改的信息,呼吁人们进行精神重建并与上帝建立个人关系。根据福音书的记载,他聚集了一批门徒,并创造了各种奇迹。


His crucifixion in Jerusalem is a central moment in Christianity. Christians believe that through his death, Jesus offered the ultimate sacrifice for the forgiveness of humanity's sins, and that his resurrection three days later offers the promise of salvation and eternal life. This event is commemorated every year at the Christian Easter. Christianity began as a movement within Judaism in the 1st century, but quickly spread to other, mainly non-Jewish, populations throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The figure of Jesus and his teachings have had a profound influence on human history, shaping not only the Christian religion but also many aspects of Western and world civilisation.
他在耶路撒冷被钉死在十字架上是基督教的核心时刻。基督徒相信,耶稣通过他的死,为宽恕人类的罪孽做出了终极牺牲,而他三天后的复活则带来了救赎和永生的应许。每年的基督教复活节都会纪念这一事件。基督教始于公元 1 世纪的犹太教运动,但很快就传播到了罗马帝国内外的其他人群,主要是非犹太教人群。耶稣的形象及其教义对人类历史产生了深远的影响,不仅塑造了基督教,还塑造了西方和世界文明的许多方面。


=== Legalisation and institutionalisation of Christianity ===  
=== 基督教的合法化和制度化 ===


Under Emperor Constantine I, with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire, putting an end to official persecution. Later, under Emperor Theodosius I in 380 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica. This imperial recognition profoundly transformed Christianity, allowing it to spread and influence all aspects of Roman society. However, this integration of Christianity into imperial power structures also created tensions and divergences within the Christian community. Some Christian communities sought to distance themselves from the official Church and the Empire, either because of theological differences or in response to what they perceived as the corruption or politicisation of their faith. These groups, often labelled sects or heresies by the official Church, sought to preserve a form of Christianity that they considered more authentic or faithful to the original teachings of Jesus and the apostles.
君士坦丁一世皇帝于公元 313 年颁布《米兰敕令》,使基督教在罗马帝国合法化,结束了官方的迫害。后来,在公元 380 年皇帝狄奥多西一世的统治下,基督教通过《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》成为罗马帝国的官方宗教。帝国的这一承认深刻地改变了基督教,使其得以传播并影响到罗马社会的方方面面。然而,基督教与帝国权力结构的融合也在基督教团体内部造成了紧张和分歧。一些基督教团体试图与官方教会和帝国保持距离,他们或是因为神学上的分歧,或是为了回应他们所认为的信仰的腐败或政治化。这些团体通常被官方教会称为教派或异端,他们试图保留一种他们认为更真实或更忠于耶稣和使徒们最初教义的基督教形式。


Such differences led to various schisms and movements within Christianity, some of which persisted for centuries. These divisions were exacerbated by theological debates (such as the nature of the Trinity or the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Jesus), cultural and linguistic differences, and political conflicts within the Empire. The integration of Christianity into the structure of the Roman Empire therefore had a complex impact: it enabled an unprecedented expansion and institutionalisation of the religion, but also sowed the seeds of internal divisions that would continue to shape the history of Christianity in the centuries that followed.
这些分歧导致了基督教内部的各种分裂和运动,其中一些持续了几个世纪。神学争论(如三位一体的性质或耶稣的神性与人性之间的关系)、文化和语言差异以及帝国内部的政治冲突加剧了这些分歧。因此,基督教融入罗马帝国的结构产生了复杂的影响:它使宗教得到了前所未有的扩展和制度化,但同时也播下了内部分裂的种子,这些分裂将在随后的几个世纪中继续影响基督教的历史。


The debate over the nature of Jesus is one of the greatest and most significant in the history of Christianity. This theological question, which concerns the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Jesus, was at the heart of many controversies and led to several major councils in the early Church. The main question was how Jesus could be both fully divine and fully human. This issue was first significantly addressed at the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, where the doctrine of the Trinity began to take shape. The Nicene Creed, resulting from this Council, affirmed that Jesus was "of the same substance" (homoousios) as the Father, thus establishing his full divinity. However, this declaration did not put an end to the debate. Over the following centuries, different schools of thought emerged. Two of the most influential were Arianism, which held that Jesus, although divine, was not of the same substance as the Father, and was therefore inferior to him; and Nestorianism, which taught that the divine and human natures of Jesus were separate and distinct.
关于耶稣本质的争论是基督教历史上最伟大、最重要的争论之一。这个神学问题涉及耶稣的神性与人性之间的关系,是许多争论的核心,并导致了早期教会的几次大公会议。主要问题是耶稣如何既是完全的神,又是完全的人。这个问题在公元 325 年的尼西亚大公会议上首次得到了重要解决,三位一体的教义在此会议上开始形成。该会议产生的《尼西亚信经》确认耶稣与天父 "同质"(homoousios),从而确立了耶稣的完全神性。然而,这一声明并没有结束争论。在随后的几个世纪里,出现了不同的思想流派。其中最有影响力的两个派别是阿里乌派和景教派,阿里乌派认为耶稣虽然是神,但与天父不是同一物质,因此低于天父;景教派则认为耶稣的神性和人性是分开和不同的。


These debates reached their climax at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, which resulted in the formulation of the so-called "double nature" of Christ: Jesus was recognised as being both fully divine and fully human, the two natures being united in one person without being mixed, confused or separated. This doctrine is known as Chalcedonian Christology. This debate about the nature of Jesus was not just an abstract theological question; it had major political, social and cultural repercussions in the Roman Empire and beyond. Disagreements over these issues led to schisms within the Church and were even the cause of conflict and persecution. The way in which the various Christian communities responded to these issues significantly shaped the evolution of Christianity in the centuries that followed.
这些争论在公元 451 年的卡尔西顿大公会议上达到高潮,最终形成了所谓的基督 "双重性":人们承认耶稣既具有完全的神性,又具有完全的人性,两种本性合而为一,没有混合、混淆或分离。这一教义被称为卡尔西基督论。这场关于耶稣本质的争论不仅仅是一个抽象的神学问题,它在罗马帝国内外产生了重大的政治、社会和文化影响。对这些问题的分歧导致了教会内部的分裂,甚至引发了冲突和迫害。各个基督教团体应对这些问题的方式极大地影响了基督教在随后几个世纪的演变。


=== The Council of Nicaea and the Formation of Christian Doctrine ===  
=== 尼西亚会议与基督教教义的形成 ===


The Council of Nicaea, held in 325 AD, was a crucial moment in the history of Christianity for several reasons. It was the first ecumenical council, bringing together bishops from all over the Roman Empire to debate and decide on central theological issues. The main issue at stake was to respond to Arianism, a doctrine promoted by Arius, a priest from Alexandria, who maintained that Jesus was not of the same substance as God the Father, but was rather a creature created by God and inferior to him. The Council of Nicaea rejected Arianism and affirmed that Jesus was "consubstantial" (of the same substance) with the Father, thus affirming his full divinity. This decision was codified in the Nicene Creed, which became a fundamental statement of the Christian faith.
公元 325 年召开的尼西亚会议是基督教历史上的关键时刻,原因有几个。这是第一次大公会议,来自罗马帝国各地的主教聚集一堂,就核心神学问题进行辩论并做出决定。阿里乌斯是一位来自亚历山大的牧师,他主张耶稣与父神不是同一物质,而是上帝创造的、比他低等的受造物。尼西亚大公会议摒弃了阿里乌主义,确认耶稣与天父 "同质"(具有相同的物质),从而肯定了耶稣的完全神性。这一决定被编入《尼西亚信经》,成为基督教信仰的基本声明。


However, the Nicene decision did not resolve all the controversies. It led to the formation of different interpretations and churches, particularly between the Church of the East and the Church of the West. These differences were linked not only to theological issues, but also to linguistic, cultural and political ones. The Jacobites, for example, followed the teachings of James Baradai and were associated with the Syriac Orthodox Church. They rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD), which had elaborated further on the nature of Christ by affirming that he had two natures, divine and human, united in one person. The Jacobites and other groups, such as the Nestorians and Monophysites, formed their own distinct ecclesiastical communities, often in opposition to the doctrines established by the dominant imperial and ecclesiastical authorities.
然而,尼西亚信经的决定并没有解决所有的争议。它导致形成了不同的解释和教会,特别是在东方教会和西方教会之间。这些分歧不仅与神学问题有关,也与语言、文化和政治问题有关。例如,雅各派遵循雅各-巴拉戴的教义,与叙利亚东正教会有联系。他们拒绝接受卡尔西顿大公会议(公元 451 年)的决定,卡尔西顿大公会议进一步阐述了基督的本质,确认他具有神性和人性,合二为一。雅各派和其他团体,如景教和基督一性一派,形成了各自不同的教会团体,往往与占统治地位的帝国和教会当局所确立的教义对立。


These divisions and controversies within Christianity significantly shaped the evolution of the religion, leading to a complex mosaic of Christian traditions around the world. These different communities have maintained their own theological interpretations, liturgical practices and organisational structures, contributing to the rich and sometimes conflicting diversity of Christianity over the centuries.
基督教内部的这些分歧和争论极大地影响了该宗教的演变,导致世界各地基督教传统的复杂拼接。这些不同的团体保持着各自的神学诠释、礼仪实践和组织结构,在过去的几个世纪里,为基督教丰富多彩、有时甚至相互冲突的多样性做出了贡献。


=== The Council of Chalcedon and Dyophysite Christology ===  
=== 卡尔西会议与戴奥菲斯派基督论 ===


The Council of Chalcedon, held in 451 AD, is a major event in the history of Christianity, as it tackled head-on the complex question of the nature of Christ. This Council is often regarded as the culmination of the Christological debates that ran through the Christian Church for several centuries. The decision of the Council of Chalcedon established that Jesus Christ possesses two distinct natures - divine and human - united in a single person (hypostasis). This formulation is known as "Dyophysite Christology". According to this doctrine, the two natures of Christ coexist without confusion, without change, without division and without separation. This meant that, although Christ is fully God and fully man, his two natures do not mix, thus preserving both his complete divinity and his complete humanity.
公元 451 年召开的卡尔西顿大公会议是基督教历史上的一件大事,因为它正面解决了基督本质这一复杂问题。大公会议通常被视为基督教会几个世纪以来基督论争论的高潮。卡尔西顿大公会议的决定确立了耶稣基督具有两种不同的本性--神性和人性--合而为一(hypostasis)。这种说法被称为 "基督二性说"(Dyophysite Christology)。根据这一教义,基督的两个本体共存,没有混淆、没有改变、没有分裂、也没有分离。这意味着,虽然基督既是完全的神,也是完全的人,但他的两种本性并不混合,从而保留了他完全的神性和完全的人性。


This Council was crucial in establishing an orthodoxy accepted by the majority of Christians, but it also led to significant divisions. Several Churches, notably some Eastern Churches, rejected the decisions of Chalcedon. These churches are often called "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" and include the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church and others. These communities maintained their own understanding of the nature of Christ, often focusing on the unity of his divine and human natures. The Council of Chalcedon thus marks a pivotal moment in the history of Christianity, establishing a fundamental doctrine for many Christian churches, while at the same time creating lasting schisms with other communities that did not accept its conclusions. These Christological divisions remain an important facet of the differences between the various Christian traditions to this day.
这次大公会议对于确立为大多数基督徒所接受的正统教义至关重要,但也导致了重大分歧。一些教会,特别是一些东方教会,拒绝接受卡尔西顿会议的决定。这些教会通常被称为 "非卡尔西顿教会 ""前卡尔西顿教会",包括埃及的科普特教会、埃塞俄比亚东正教会、亚美尼亚使徒教会等。这些团体坚持自己对基督本质的理解,通常侧重于基督神性与人性的统一。因此,卡尔西顿大公会议标志着基督教历史上的一个关键时刻,它为许多基督教会确立了基本教义,同时也与其他不接受其结论的教会产生了持久的分裂。时至今日,这些基督论分歧仍是基督教不同传统之间分歧的一个重要方面。


<gallery mode="packed" widths="300px" heights="300px">  
<gallery mode="packed" widths="300px" heights="300px">  
Image:Nicaea icon.jpg|Emperor Constantine (centre), with the bishops of the Council of Nicaea (325), anachronistically holding the text of the "Nicaea-Constantinople symbol" in its Greek liturgical form, based on the text adopted at the first Council of Constantinople (381).
Image:Nicaea icon.jpg|君士坦丁皇帝(中)与尼西亚大公会议(325 年)的主教们一起,不合时宜地手持以君士坦丁堡第一次大公会议(381 年)通过的文本为基础的希腊语礼仪形式的 "尼西亚-君士坦丁堡标志 "文本。
Fichier:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png|The separation of the Eastern (blue) and Western (orange) Churches from 1054.
Fichier:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png|1054 年东西方教会分离。
</gallery>
</gallery>


=== Political and Cultural Implications of Theological Divergences ===  
=== 神学分歧的政治和文化影响 ===


The Great Schism of 1054, marking the separation between the Church of the East, later known as the Orthodox Church, and the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, represented a historic turning point in Christianity. This rupture was not an isolated event, but rather the culmination of a long period of growing divergence between the two branches of Christianity. At the heart of these differences were profound theological and ecclesiastical disputes. One major point of contention concerned the question of papal authority. The Church of Rome, with figures such as Pope Leo IX, claimed supreme authority over all the Christian churches, a position contested by the Church of the East. The Patriarchate of Constantinople, under leaders such as Michael Cerularus, rejected the idea of centralised authority and advocated a more collegial approach.
1054 年的大分裂标志着东方教会(即后来的东正教会)与西方教会(即罗马天主教会)的分离,是基督教的一个历史转折点。这次分裂并非孤立事件,而是基督教两个分支之间长期分歧不断扩大的结果。这些分歧的核心是深刻的神学和教会争端。其中一个主要争论点涉及教皇权威问题。罗马教会以教皇利奥九世(Leo IX)等人为代表,声称拥有对所有基督教会的最高权威,而东方教会则对这一地位提出了质疑。君士坦丁堡牧首会在迈克尔-塞拉勒斯(Michael Cerularus)等领导人的领导下,反对中央集权的思想,主张采取更加合议的方式。


Another key point of contention was the addition of the "Filioque" to the Nicene Creed by the Church of the West. This change, stating that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father "and from the Son", was seen by the Church of the East as an unacceptable alteration of a doctrine established at the first ecumenical councils. This debate reflected wider differences in understanding of the Trinity and the nature of God. Beyond theological issues, cultural and political differences also played a role. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of the Byzantine Empire had created a gulf between the two regions. Linguistic differences, with Latin predominating in the West and Greek in the East, also contributed to a growing cultural divide.
另一个关键争议点是西方教会在《尼西亚信经》中加入了 "Filioque"。这一改动指出圣灵从圣父 "和圣子 "而来,东方教会认为这是对第一次大公会议确立的教义的不可接受的改动。这场争论反映了对三位一体和上帝本质理解上更广泛的分歧。除了神学问题,文化和政治差异也发挥了作用。西罗马帝国的崩溃和拜占庭帝国的崛起在两个地区之间造成了鸿沟。语言上的差异,即拉丁语在西方占主导地位而希腊语在东方占主导地位,也造成了日益扩大的文化鸿沟。


The symbolic event that marked the culmination of these tensions was the mutual excommunication of 1054. Legates sent by Pope Leo IX to Constantinople excommunicated Patriarch Michael Cerularus, who responded by excommunicating the legates. Although this excommunication was the most dramatic gesture, it represented the culmination of a long series of disagreements and misunderstandings. The Great Schism had profound repercussions on the subsequent development of Christianity, solidifying the division between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. This division, rooted in theological, cultural and political differences, has shaped not only religious history but also the political and cultural trajectories of Europe and the surrounding regions. Efforts have been made in modern times towards dialogue and reconciliation, but the divisions of the Schism of 1054 continue to influence the world's religious and cultural landscape.
标志着这些紧张关系达到顶峰的象征性事件是 1054 年的互相驱逐。教皇利奥九世派往君士坦丁堡的使节将牧首迈克尔-塞鲁拉鲁斯逐出教会,后者则将使节逐出教会。虽然开除教籍是最引人注目的举动,但它代表了一系列长期分歧和误解的顶点。大分裂对基督教后来的发展产生了深远的影响,巩固了罗马天主教会和东正教会之间的分裂。这一分裂植根于神学、文化和政治分歧,不仅影响了宗教历史,也影响了欧洲及周边地区的政治和文化轨迹。近代以来,人们一直在努力实现对话与和解,但 1054 年分裂所造成的分裂仍在影响着世界的宗教和文化格局。


=== Protestantism and the Reformation: Transforming Christianity ===  
=== 新教与宗教改革:基督教的变革 ===


In the 16th century, Christianity was profoundly transformed by the emergence of Protestantism, a movement that challenged the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the Protestant Reformation. This period marked a crucial turning point in Europe's religious history and had lasting global repercussions. The genesis of Protestantism is often attributed to Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian. In 1517, Luther posted his "95 Theses" on the door of the church in Wittenberg, criticising various aspects of the Catholic Church, including the sale of indulgences. His writings circulated rapidly, fuelled by the recent invention of the printing press, and resonated with a public increasingly dissatisfied with certain Church practices.
16 世纪,基督教因新教的出现而发生了深刻的变化,新教运动对罗马天主教会的教义和实践提出了挑战,并导致了新教改革。这一时期标志着欧洲宗教史上的一个重要转折点,并对全球产生了持久的影响。新教的起源通常归功于德国修道士兼神学家马丁-路德。1517 年,路德在维滕贝格教堂的门上张贴了他的 "95 条论纲",批评天主教会的各个方面,包括出售赎罪券。由于印刷术的发明,他的文章迅速流传开来,引起了对教会某些做法日益不满的公众的共鸣。


Luther challenged key doctrines of the Catholic Church, such as the authority of the Pope and the efficacy of works for salvation, advocating instead justification by faith alone ('sola fide') and the authority of Scripture alone ('sola scriptura'). These ideas challenged the foundations of the Catholic Church and initiated a series of religious reforms across Europe. Other key figures in the Protestant Reformation included Jean Calvin in Geneva, who developed a theological system known as Calvinism, and Huldrych Zwingli in Zurich. Each of these reformers helped shape various strands of Protestantism, which then spawned a multitude of denominations, including Lutherans, Reformed, Presbyterians and Anabaptists, among others.
路德挑战了天主教会的主要教义,如教皇的权威和行为对救赎的效力,转而主张唯独因信称义("sola fide")和唯独圣经的权威("sola scriptura")。这些思想对天主教会的基础提出了挑战,并在整个欧洲发起了一系列宗教改革。新教改革的其他关键人物包括日内瓦的让-加尔文和苏黎世的胡德里赫-茨温利,前者发展了被称为 "加尔文主义 "的神学体系。每一位改革者都帮助形成了新教的不同派别,进而衍生出众多教派,包括路德宗、改革宗、长老会和再洗礼派等。


The Reformation brought about profound changes not only in the religious sphere, but also in the political, cultural and social spheres. It led to religious wars throughout Europe, changes in political power structures, and had an influence on education, literature and the arts. The Protestant Reformation also paved the way for the expansion of Christianity around the world, particularly through missionary activities in the European colonies. Thus, the 16th century was a period of major transformation for Christianity, with Protestantism challenging the established structures of the Church and redefining the way in which many Christians understood their faith and practised their religion.
宗教改革不仅在宗教领域,而且在政治、文化和社会领域都带来了深刻的变化。它导致了整个欧洲的宗教战争、政治权力结构的变化,并对教育、文学和艺术产生了影响。新教改革还为基督教在全世界的扩张铺平了道路,特别是通过在欧洲殖民地的传教活动。因此,16 世纪是基督教发生重大变革的时期,新教挑战了教会的既有结构,重新定义了许多基督徒理解其信仰和信奉其宗教的方式。


Throughout the complex history of Christianity, there have been times when some Eastern Churches have established links with the Roman Catholic Church, leading to Christian communities that combine elements of Eastern and Western traditions. These Churches, often called Eastern Catholic Churches or Uniate Churches, have retained their liturgical rites and Eastern cultural heritage while accepting the authority of the Pope and certain Roman Catholic doctrines. This movement towards union with Rome has been motivated by various factors, including political considerations, desires for support in the face of external pressure, and theological and ecclesiastical interests. A notable example is the Union of Brest in 1596, when certain bishops of the Orthodox Church in Poland-Lithuania agreed to union with the Roman Catholic Church, forming the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Similarly, the Maronite Catholic Church in Lebanon has long maintained communion with Rome while preserving its Eastern liturgical and spiritual traditions.
在基督教复杂的历史中,一些东方教会曾一度与罗马天主教会建立了联系,形成了融合东西方传统元素的基督教团体。这些教会通常被称为东方天主教会或联合教会,它们保留了自己的礼仪仪式和东方文化遗产,同时接受教皇的权威和罗马天主教的某些教义。这种与罗马联合的运动有多种动机,包括政治考虑、面对外部压力寻求支持的愿望以及神学和教会利益。一个显著的例子是 1596 年的布列斯特联盟,当时波兰-立陶宛东正教会的一些主教同意与罗马天主教会合并,成立了乌克兰希腊天主教会。同样,黎巴嫩的马龙派天主教会也长期与罗马保持共融,同时保留了其东方礼仪和精神传统。


As far as Christian demographics over the centuries are concerned, it is true that in some regions, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa, the proportion of Christians to the total population has declined over time. This decline can be attributed to various factors, such as conversions, migrations, political changes, and social and economic pressures. For example, after the Muslim conquest of the Middle East, many Christians gradually adopted the Islamic language and religion, although Christian communities continued to exist in the region. However, on a global scale, Christianity expanded significantly, largely as a result of missionary movements and European colonisation between the 16th and 20th centuries. Today, Christianity remains one of the world's major religions, with a substantial presence on every continent. It is important to note that, despite the challenges and changes, Christian communities have continued to preserve their faith and traditions, often in very diverse cultural and political contexts. Christianity's ability to adapt and transform while preserving its core beliefs is a notable aspect of its history.
就几个世纪以来的基督徒人口统计而言,在某些地区,特别是中东和北非,基督徒占总人口的比例确实随着时间的推移而下降。这种下降可归因于各种因素,如改宗、移民、政治变革以及社会和经济压力。例如,穆斯林征服中东后,许多基督徒逐渐接受了伊斯兰语言和宗教,尽管该地区仍有基督教社区存在。然而,在全球范围内,基督教得到了长足的发展,这主要是 16 世纪至 20 世纪传教运动和欧洲殖民化的结果。今天,基督教仍然是世界主要宗教之一,在各大洲都有大量存在。值得注意的是,尽管面临各种挑战和变化,基督教团体仍在继续维护他们的信仰和传统,而且往往是在非常不同的文化和政治背景下。基督教有能力在保持其核心信仰的同时进行适应和变革,这是其历史的一个显著方面。


==Principles and currents of Islam==
==伊斯兰教的原则和潮流==


=== Muhammad: Prophet and Foundation of Islam ===  
=== 穆罕默德伊斯兰教的先知和基础 ===


Islam centres on the figure of Muhammad, considered by Muslims to be the last prophet sent by God to guide humanity. Muhammad's life and teachings play a fundamental role in Islam and have profoundly influenced the development of this religion. Born in Mecca in 570 AD, Muhammad grew up in a context where the Arabian Peninsula was dominated by polytheistic practices and a tribal social system. His youth was marked by orphanhood and poverty, but he later acquired a reputation for trust and integrity in his work as a merchant. These experiences gave him a unique perspective on the various social, economic and religious aspects of his society. According to Islamic tradition, at the age of 40 Muhammad began to receive revelations from God (Allah in Arabic) through the angel Gabriel. These revelations, which continued for 23 years, formed the Koran, the sacred text of Islam.
伊斯兰教以穆罕默德为中心,穆斯林认为他是真主派来指导人类的最后一位先知。穆罕默德的生平和教义在伊斯兰教中占有重要地位,并对该宗教的发展产生了深远影响。穆罕默德于公元 570 年出生于麦加,在阿拉伯半岛多神教习俗和部落社会制度占主导地位的环境中长大。他年轻时是孤儿,生活贫困,但他后来在商人的工作中赢得了信任和正直的声誉。这些经历使他对社会、经济和宗教的方方面面有了独特的见解。根据伊斯兰传统,穆罕默德在 40 岁时开始通过天使加百列接受真主(阿拉伯语中的真主)的启示。这些启示持续了 23 年,形成了伊斯兰教的圣典《古兰经》。


Muhammad's message emphasised strict monotheism (Tawhid), social justice, moral responsibility and equality before God. Aware of the inequalities and injustices of Meccan society, his teachings called for a radical change in the social and religious structures of the time. However, his preaching met with strong opposition from Meccan leaders, mainly because of the economic and social implications of his message, which challenged the power structures and religious practices established in Mecca. These tensions eventually led to the Hegira (migration) of Muhammad and his first followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD, an event so significant that it marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
穆罕默德的信息强调严格的一神论(Tawhid)、社会正义、道德责任和真主面前人人平等。他意识到麦加社会的不平等和不公正,他的教义呼吁彻底改变当时的社会和宗教结构。然而,他的传教遭到了麦加领导人的强烈反对,主要是因为他的教义对经济和社会产生了影响,挑战了麦加的权力结构和宗教习俗。这些紧张局势最终导致穆罕默德和他的第一批追随者于公元 622 年从麦加迁徙到麦地那,这一事件意义重大,标志着伊斯兰历法的开始。


=== The Hegira: A turning point in Islamic history ===  
=== 黑吉拉:伊斯兰历史的转折点 ===


In Medina, Muhammad established a community (Ummah) based on Islamic principles, where he played a role of spiritual, political and military leader. The following years saw the rapid expansion of Islam across the Arabian Peninsula, as well as the consolidation of the various Arab tribes under the banner of the new faith. After Muhammad's death in 632 AD, his teachings and example continued to guide Muslims. Islam spread rapidly beyond the Arabian Peninsula, becoming a major religious, cultural and political force in the world. Muhammad's life and teachings remain at the heart of the Muslim faith, profoundly influencing the beliefs, practices and culture of Muslims around the world.
在麦地那,穆罕默德建立了一个以伊斯兰原则为基础的社区(乌玛),他在那里扮演着精神、政治和军事领袖的角色。在随后的岁月里,伊斯兰教迅速扩展到整个阿拉伯半岛,各个阿拉伯部落也在新信仰的旗帜下得到巩固。公元 632 年穆罕默德去世后,他的教诲和榜样继续指引着穆斯林。伊斯兰教迅速传播到阿拉伯半岛以外,成为世界上一支重要的宗教、文化和政治力量。穆罕默德的生平和教诲仍然是穆斯林信仰的核心,深刻影响着世界各地穆斯林的信仰、习俗和文化。


The period following Muhammad's death in 632 AD is crucial in the history of Islam, as it laid the foundations for its political structure and internal divisions. The Hegira, Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622, was a founding moment in Islam, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the establishment of a united Muslim community under his leadership.
穆罕默德于公元 632 年去世后的时期在伊斯兰教历史上至关重要,因为它为伊斯兰教的政治结构和内部分裂奠定了基础。赫吉拉,即穆罕默德于 622 年从麦加迁徙到麦地那,是伊斯兰教的奠基时刻,标志着伊斯兰历法的开始,以及在他的领导下建立了一个统一的穆斯林社区。


When Muhammad died in 632, he did not explicitly name a successor to lead him, which led to a crucial question: who should lead the Muslim community (Ummah)? This question gave rise to the two main branches of Islam: Sunnism and Shiism. The Sunnis, who represent the majority of Muslims, believe that Muhammad's successor should be elected from among the members of the Muslim community and follow the "Sunna" (tradition based on Muhammad's teachings and practices). The first caliph elected according to this tradition was Abu Bakr, a close companion and father-in-law of Muhammad. Shiites, on the other hand, believe that the leadership of the Muslim community should remain within Muhammad's family. They maintain that Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was his designated successor. Shiites use the term "Ahl al-Bayt" (people of the house) to refer to Muhammad's family and their descendants.
632 年穆罕默德去世时,他没有明确指定一位继承人来领导他,这就产生了一个关键问题:谁应该领导穆斯林团体(Ummah)?这个问题产生了伊斯兰教的两大分支:逊尼派和什叶派:逊尼派和什叶派。代表大多数穆斯林的逊尼派认为,穆罕默德的继承人应从穆斯林群体成员中选出,并遵循 "逊奈"(基于穆罕默德教义和实践的传统)。根据这一传统选出的第一位哈里发是穆罕默德的亲密伙伴和岳父艾布-伯克尔。什叶派则认为,穆斯林社区的领导权应保留在穆罕默德的家族中。他们认为,穆罕默德的堂兄兼女婿阿里是他指定的继承人。什叶派用 "Ahl al-Bayt"(家族的人)来指穆罕默德的家族及其后裔。


The period from 632 to 661 AD, known as the period of the 'Rightly Guided Caliphs' or 'Rashidun', saw Abu Bakr's successors, 'Umar and 'Uthman, become Caliphs. Each of these caliphs was elected by consensus or by council from among Muhammad's companions. However, tensions and disagreements over the question of succession led to divisions and conflicts, culminating in the Fitna, a series of civil wars that deeply affected the Muslim community. This period laid the foundations for the caliphate, the political structure of the Muslim empire, which was to develop and change form over the centuries. The initial divisions between Sunnis and Shiites, although mainly theological and political at the outset, significantly shaped the history, politics and culture of the Muslim world.
公元 632 年至 661 年被称为 "正统哈里发 "或 "拉希敦 "时期,艾布-伯克尔的继任者欧麦尔和奥斯曼先后成为哈里发。每一位哈里发都是从穆罕默德的同伴中通过协商一致或议会选举产生的。然而,在继承问题上的紧张和分歧导致了分裂和冲突,最终导致了 "菲特纳"(Fitna)战争,一系列内战深深影响了穆斯林社区。这一时期为穆斯林帝国的政治结构--哈里发奠定了基础,并在几个世纪中不断发展和变化。逊尼派和什叶派之间最初的分歧虽然在开始时主要是神学和政治分歧,但却极大地影响了穆斯林世界的历史、政治和文化。


=== The Battle of Nehavend and the Fall of the Sassanid Empire ===  
=== 内哈文德战役和萨珊帝国的覆灭 ===


The Battle of Nehavend, which took place around 641-642 AD, is a major historical milestone in the expansion of Islam and the fall of the Sassanid Empire. This military confrontation, which took place in what is now north-west Iran, pitted rising Muslim Arab forces against the army of the Sassanid Empire, a once powerful empire weakened by prolonged conflict and internal unrest. Prior to this battle, the Sassanid Empire, under the reign of Yazdgard III, had already suffered heavy losses in the face of Muslim conquests. The Battle of Nehavend is often seen as the final blow to Sassanid resistance. The Muslim victory in this battle was decisive: not only did it mark the end of organised resistance by the Sassanid Empire, but it also paved the way for the rapid expansion of Islam in the region. This victory, dubbed by Muslims "the victory of victories", had profound consequences for the course of regional history. With the defeat of the Sassanid army, Yazdgard III was forced to flee eastwards, desperately seeking allies to reconquer his empire. However, his efforts proved fruitless, and the Sassanid Empire, once a rival of the Byzantine Empire, disappeared from history.
内哈文德战役发生在公元 641-642 年左右,是伊斯兰教扩张和萨珊帝国灭亡的一个重要历史里程碑。这场军事冲突发生在现在的伊朗西北部,崛起的阿拉伯穆斯林军队与萨珊帝国的军队对峙,萨珊帝国曾是一个强大的帝国,但因长期冲突和内部动乱而衰弱。在这场战役之前,亚兹德加德三世统治下的萨珊帝国已经在穆斯林的征服下损失惨重。内哈文德战役通常被视为对萨珊抵抗的最后一击。穆斯林在这场战役中取得了决定性的胜利:它不仅标志着萨珊帝国有组织抵抗的结束,还为伊斯兰教在该地区的迅速扩张铺平了道路。这场被穆斯林称为 "胜利中的胜利 "的胜利对该地区的历史进程产生了深远的影响。随着萨珊军队的失败,亚兹德加德三世被迫向东逃亡,拼命寻找盟友来重新征服他的帝国。然而,他的努力毫无结果,曾经是拜占庭帝国对手的萨珊帝国从历史上消失了。


The impact of this battle goes far beyond the battlefield. It marked the beginning of a major cultural and religious transformation in Persia. With the Muslim conquest, the region began a gradual conversion from the Zoroastrian religion to Islam. This transition was not limited to religious aspects; it also brought about major linguistic and cultural changes. Arabic became the main language of administration and scholarly culture, although Persian language and culture continued to play a significant role in the region. The Battle of Nehavend therefore illustrates how military conquest can have lasting implications for the cultural and religious identity of a region. By transforming the Persia of the Sassanid Empire into a key territory of the Islamic world, this battle not only redrawn the political map of the region, but also laid the foundations for the cultural and religious developments that followed.
这场战役的影响远远超出了战场。它标志着波斯文化和宗教重大变革的开始。随着穆斯林的征服,该地区开始逐渐从拜火教向伊斯兰教转变。这种转变不仅限于宗教方面,还带来了语言和文化方面的重大变化。阿拉伯语成为行政和学术文化的主要语言,尽管波斯语和波斯文化在该地区仍发挥着重要作用。因此,奈哈文德战役说明了军事征服如何对一个地区的文化和宗教特性产生持久的影响。通过将萨珊帝国的波斯转变为伊斯兰世界的重要领土,这场战役不仅重绘了该地区的政治版图,还为之后的文化和宗教发展奠定了基础。


=== The Shiites and their Vision of Islamic Leadership ===  
===什叶派及其对伊斯兰领导权的看法 ===


The Shiites, whose name literally means "followers of Ali", hold that Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, was Muhammad's rightful successor. They believe that Ali and his descendants, the Imams, are the true spiritual and political leaders of the Muslim community. Shiism is based on the idea of the divine legitimacy of Ali's lineage, and its followers focus particularly on the spiritual and mystical aspects of Islam. Sunnis, on the other hand, represent the majority of Muslims and maintain that the caliph should be elected on the basis of his competence and piety. Muawiya, the governor of Syria, became a key figure in Sunni history when he clashed with Ali at the Battle of Siffin in 657. This battle, which ended in a stalemate and led to controversial arbitration, was a decisive moment, exacerbating divisions within the Muslim community. Ali's acceptance of arbitration at Siffin caused a rift with some of his supporters, who felt that by accepting arbitration he was betraying the principles of Islam. These dissidents became known as the Kharijites, a group who advocated a strict and sometimes extreme interpretation of Islam, and who opposed both Ali and Muawiya.
什叶派的字面意思是 "阿里的追随者",他们认为先知穆罕默德的堂弟兼女婿阿里是穆罕默德的合法继承人。他们认为阿里及其后裔伊玛目是穆斯林社会真正的精神和政治领袖。什叶派的基础是阿里血统的神圣合法性,其追随者特别注重伊斯兰教的精神和神秘方面。另一方面,逊尼派代表了穆斯林的大多数,他们认为哈里发应根据其能力和虔诚程度选举产生。叙利亚总督穆阿维亚在 657 年的锡芬战役中与阿里发生冲突,成为逊尼派历史上的关键人物。这场战役以僵局告终,并导致了有争议的仲裁,是一个决定性的时刻,加剧了穆斯林内部的分裂。阿里在锡芬接受仲裁与他的一些支持者产生了分歧,他们认为阿里接受仲裁就是背叛了伊斯兰教的原则。这些持不同政见者后来被称为哈里吉派(Kharijites),他们主张对伊斯兰教进行严格的解释,有时甚至是极端的解释,他们同时反对阿里和穆阿维亚。


After the assassination of Ali in 661, often attributed to the Kharijites, Muawiya established the Umayyad caliphate, marking the beginning of a dynasty in which succession became hereditary. This period was marked by ongoing tension and conflict between the supporters of Ali and the Umayyad rulers. Muawiya's son Yazid is particularly unpopular in Shia tradition for his role in the massacre of Husayn, Ali's son, at the Battle of Kerbala in 680. This tragic event is at the heart of the Shia commemoration of Ashura and symbolises the fight against injustice and oppression. These early divisions and conflicts within Islam laid the foundations for the doctrinal, political and cultural differences that characterise relations between Sunnis, Shias and Kharijites to this day. These events not only shaped the history of the Muslim world, but also had a profound impact on politics, society and culture in the regions where Islam is practised.
阿里于 661 年遇刺身亡(通常被认为是哈里吉派所为),之后穆阿维亚建立了倭马亚哈里发王朝,标志着一个世袭继承王朝的开始。这一时期,阿里的支持者与倭马亚统治者之间的矛盾和冲突持续不断。穆阿维亚的儿子亚兹德在什叶派传统中尤其不受欢迎,因为他在 680 年的卡尔巴拉战役中参与了对阿里之子侯赛因的屠杀。这一悲惨事件是什叶派阿舒拉节纪念活动的核心,象征着反对不公正和压迫的斗争。伊斯兰教内部早期的分裂和冲突为教义、政治和文化差异奠定了基础,这些差异至今仍是逊尼派、什叶派和哈里吉派之间关系的特点。这些事件不仅塑造了穆斯林世界的历史,还对信奉伊斯兰教地区的政治、社会和文化产生了深远影响。


=== The Battle of Kerbala and its Impact on Shi'ism ===
=== 卡尔巴拉战役及其对什叶派的影响 ===


The Battle of Kerbala, which took place in Iraq in 680 AD, is one of the most tragic and significant events in the history of Islam, particularly for the Shiites. The battle pitted Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammad's grandson and a central figure in Shi'ism, against the forces of the Umayyad caliph Yazid I. Husayn, along with a small group of supporters and family members, had travelled to Kerbala to challenge the legitimacy of the Umayyad caliphate, which the Shiites considered illegitimate and corrupt. Yazid's vastly superior forces surrounded Husayn and his supporters. Despite offers of surrender, Husayn chose to resist, leading to an unequal battle in which he and almost all his companions were killed. Husayn's death at Kerbala has become a powerful symbol of resistance to oppression and sacrifice for justice in the Shia tradition. His death is commemorated every year during the month of Muharram, particularly on the day of Ashura, when Shiites around the world remember his martyrdom with rituals of mourning and commemoration.
公元 680 年在伊拉克发生的卡尔巴拉战役是伊斯兰教历史上最悲惨、最重大的事件之一,尤其是对什叶派而言。这场战役使穆罕默德的孙子、什叶派的核心人物侯赛因-伊本-阿里(Husayn ibn Ali)与倭马亚哈里发雅兹德一世(Yazid I)的军队对决。侯赛因与一小群支持者和家庭成员前往卡尔巴拉,挑战倭马亚哈里发的合法性,什叶派认为倭马亚哈里发是非法和腐败的。雅兹德的优势兵力包围了侯赛因及其支持者。尽管有人提出投降,但侯赛因还是选择了抵抗,导致了一场不平等的战斗,他和几乎所有的同伴都在战斗中丧生。侯赛因在卡尔巴拉之死已成为什叶派传统中反抗压迫和为正义而牺牲的有力象征。每年的穆哈拉姆月,尤其是阿舒拉节,世界各地的什叶派教徒都会举行哀悼和纪念仪式,缅怀他的殉难。


[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Omeyyade.png|vignette|centré]]
[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Omeyyade.png|vignette|centré]]


This historical map illustrates the Mediterranean world around 750 AD, highlighting the territorial extent of the Umayyad Caliphate at its height, as well as the other major political entities of the period.
这幅历史地图展示了公元 750 年前后的地中海世界,突出显示了倭马亚哈里发王朝鼎盛时期的领土范围,以及当时的其他主要政治实体。


The area in green represents the Umayyad Caliphate, which extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) in the east to the borders of India, encompassing the Maghreb, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula and vast regions of the Middle East. The Umayyad Caliphate, with Damascus as its capital, expanded rapidly following the Muslim conquests that began in the 7th century. The inclusion of cities such as Cordoba, Seville and Toledo shows the extent of their power in Europe, while cities such as Kairouan in North Africa and Fustat in Egypt highlight their presence in Africa. In red, we see the Frankish Kingdom under the reign of Pepin the Short. The Franks, under the leadership of Charles Martel, halted the Umayyad advance into Europe at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which is often regarded as a decisive moment in the containment of Islamic expansion in Western Europe. The colour blue indicates the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, which maintained its capital at Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). Despite losing territory to the Arabs, the Byzantine Empire managed to resist and hold on to key regions such as Anatolia, the Balkans and parts of Italy, as evidenced by the presence of Syracuse and Ravenna on the map. The Lombard Kingdom, not highlighted on the map but present in the region of Northern Italy, is another political entity from this period that was eventually conquered by the Franks. Finally, the small area in light brown represents the Kingdom of Asturias, located in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. This was one of the first Christian kingdoms established after the start of the Muslim conquest of Spain, and is considered to be a predecessor of the Christian kingdoms that later reconquered the territories under Muslim control during the Reconquista. The map therefore reflects a period of major geopolitical transitions, with dynamic exchanges of power between kingdoms and empires, and represents territorial demarcations at a time when Europe and the Middle East were deeply influenced by conflicts and exchanges between Christians and Muslims.
绿色区域代表倭马亚哈里发国,东起伊比利亚半岛(安达卢西亚),西至印度边境,包括马格里布、埃及、阿拉伯半岛和中东广大地区。倭马亚哈里发王朝以大马士革为首都,在 7 世纪开始的穆斯林征服之后迅速扩张。科尔多瓦、塞维利亚和托莱多等城市显示了他们在欧洲的势力范围,而北非的凯鲁万和埃及的福斯塔特等城市则突出了他们在非洲的存在。红色代表矮子佩潘统治时期的法兰克王国。法兰克人在夏尔-马泰尔的领导下,在 732 年的普瓦捷战役中阻止了倭马亚王朝向欧洲的推进,这次战役通常被认为是遏制伊斯兰教在西欧扩张的决定性时刻。蓝色表示拜占庭帝国,又称东罗马帝国,其首都设在君士坦丁堡(今伊斯坦布尔)。尽管领土被阿拉伯人夺去,但拜占庭帝国仍设法抵抗并守住了安纳托利亚、巴尔干和意大利部分地区等重要地区,地图上的锡拉库扎和拉文纳就是证明。伦巴第王国虽然没有在地图上标出,但却出现在意大利北部地区,它是这一时期的另一个政治实体,最终被法兰克人征服。最后,浅棕色的一小块区域代表阿斯图里亚斯王国,位于伊比利亚半岛西北部。这是穆斯林开始征服西班牙后建立的第一批基督教王国之一,被认为是后来在重建征服期间重新征服穆斯林控制区的基督教王国的前身。因此,这幅地图反映了一个重大的地缘政治转型时期,王国和帝国之间的权力交换充满活力,并代表了欧洲和中东深受基督徒和穆斯林之间冲突和交流影响时期的领土划分。


=== The Rise and Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate ===
=== 倭马亚哈里发王朝的兴衰 ===


The Umayyad dynasty, founded by Muawiya after the death of Ali, established its capital in Damascus and ruled a vast empire stretching from Spain to India. Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire underwent considerable expansion and a degree of unification, although their reign was marked by internal tensions, particularly with the followers of Ali and the Shiite communities. The Umayyad caliphate finally came to an end in 750 AD, overthrown by the Abbasid revolution. The Abbasids, who moved the empire's capital to Baghdad, established a new dynasty that marked a turning point in Islamic history, with a cultural, scientific and political revival. The fall of the Umayyads also marked a new phase in the Sunni-Shia division, with the Shia continuing to develop as a distinct community with its own religious doctrines and practices.
倭马亚王朝由穆阿维亚在阿里死后建立,建都于大马士革,统治着从西班牙到印度的庞大帝国。在倭马亚王朝的统治下,穆斯林帝国经历了相当大的扩张和一定程度的统一,但其统治期间内部关系紧张,尤其是与阿里的追随者和什叶派社区的关系。倭马亚王朝的哈里发统治最终在公元 750 年被阿巴斯革命推翻。阿拔斯王朝将帝国首都迁往巴格达,建立了一个新王朝,标志着伊斯兰历史的转折点,文化、科学和政治复兴。倭马亚王朝的灭亡也标志着逊尼派和什叶派的分裂进入了一个新阶段,什叶派继续发展成为一个拥有自己宗教教义和习俗的独特群体。


[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Abbasside.png|vignette|centré]]
[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Abbasside.png|vignette|centré]]


The historical map provided represents Europe and the Middle East around the year 880 A.D. It illustrates the complex geopolitics of the period, marked by a mosaic of kingdoms, empires and dynasties. The green area represents the declining Abbasid Caliphate, which succeeded the Umayyads and whose capital was Baghdad. This entity enjoyed a golden age of scientific, cultural and economic development, but during this period its political influence began to wane due to internal revolts and pressure from emerging powers. There were several kingdoms in Spain, including León, Navarre and Aragon, in addition to territories still under Muslim control, such as those governed by the Umayyad emirate of Cordoba, shown in green chequered. These Muslim regions of Spain, known as Al-Andalus, were centres of learning and culture where Muslims, Christians and Jews coexisted. The red and white striped area indicates the Papal States under papal authority, centred around Rome, symbolising papal power in the Italian peninsula. The orange and yellow areas represent the Frankish Kingdom, divided into West and East Francia. By this time, the Carolingian Empire, once unified under Charlemagne, had fragmented, leading to the formation of what would later become France and Germany. The Byzantine Empire, in light blue, with Constantinople as its capital, although weakened by internal struggles and external conflicts, maintained its presence in the eastern Mediterranean, including regions such as Anatolia, the Balkans and parts of southern Italy. In North Africa, the Aghlabid and Idrisid dynasties, as well as the Rustamids (in green with stripes), all stemming from dissidences or branches of the great Islamic movement, established autonomous reigns, with varying degrees of allegiance or independence from the Abbasid caliphate. Finally, the Bulgarian Kingdom, shown in purple, represents another significant power of this period, having extended its influence into the Balkans and sometimes challenging the Byzantine Empire. This map reveals the political fragmentation of the period, with the rise of new powers, the decentralisation of power and the complex interaction between different religious and secular authorities. It depicts a period of transition between the Carolingian age and the beginnings of the formation of European nation-states, while also showing the gradual weakening of the Islamic caliphates in the face of rising internal and external forces.
所提供的历史地图代表了公元 880 年左右的欧洲和中东地区,展示了这一时期复杂的地缘政治,王国、帝国和王朝星罗棋布。绿色区域代表衰落的阿拔斯哈里发王朝,它继承了倭马亚王朝,首都是巴格达。这个实体曾享有科学、文化和经济发展的黄金时代,但在此期间,由于内部叛乱和新兴大国的压力,其政治影响力开始减弱。西班牙境内有几个王国,包括莱昂、纳瓦拉和阿拉贡,此外还有仍在穆斯林控制下的领土,如科尔多瓦倭马亚酋长国统治的领土,如绿色格子所示。西班牙的这些穆斯林地区被称为安达卢西亚,是穆斯林、基督徒和犹太人共存的学习和文化中心。红白条纹区域表示以罗马为中心的教皇国,象征教皇在意大利半岛的权力。橙色和黄色区域代表法兰克王国,分为西法兰克和东法兰克。此时,曾经在查理曼统治下统一的卡洛林帝国已经四分五裂,形成了后来的法国和德意志。以君士坦丁堡为首都的拜占庭帝国(浅蓝色)虽然因内部斗争和外部冲突而衰弱,但仍保持着在地中海东部的存在,包括安纳托利亚、巴尔干和意大利南部部分地区。在北非,阿格拉比德王朝、伊德里斯王朝以及鲁斯塔米德王朝(绿条纹)都源于伊斯兰运动的不同派别或分支,他们建立了自治统治,在不同程度上效忠或独立于阿拔斯王朝的哈里发。最后,紫色显示的保加利亚王国代表了这一时期的另一个重要势力,它将影响力扩展到巴尔干地区,有时还挑战拜占庭帝国。这幅地图揭示了这一时期的政治分裂、新势力的崛起、权力下放以及不同宗教和世俗当局之间复杂的互动关系。它描绘了从卡洛林时代到欧洲民族国家开始形成之间的过渡时期,同时也显示了伊斯兰哈里发面对不断上升的内部和外部势力而逐渐衰弱的过程。


=== The Rise and Fall of the Abbasid Caliphate ===  
=== 阿拔斯王朝的兴衰 ===


The transition from the Umayyad to the Abbasid dynasty in 750 AD represented a major turning point in Islamic history. The revolt that led to the fall of the Umayyads was widely supported by Muslims seeking change, particularly Shiites and non-Arabs (such as Persians), who had felt marginalised under Umayyad rule. With the rise of the Abbasids, who claimed descent from Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the centre of power shifted from Damascus to Baghdad. This period, often considered the golden age of Islam, was marked by significant advances in science, culture, philosophy, medicine and law. The Abbasids encouraged the patronage of science and the arts, attracting scholars, artists and thinkers from across the empire and beyond.
公元 750 年,倭马亚王朝向阿拔斯王朝的过渡是伊斯兰历史上的一个重要转折点。导致倭马亚王朝灭亡的起义得到了寻求变革的穆斯林的广泛支持,尤其是什叶派和非阿拉伯人(如波斯人),他们认为自己在倭马亚王朝的统治下被边缘化了。阿巴斯王朝声称自己是穆罕默德叔叔阿巴斯--阿卜杜勒-穆塔里卜的后裔,随着阿巴斯王朝的崛起,权力中心从大马士革转移到了巴格达。这一时期通常被认为是伊斯兰教的黄金时代,其特点是科学、文化、哲学、医学和法律方面的重大进步。阿巴斯王朝鼓励赞助科学和艺术,吸引了帝国内外的学者、艺术家和思想家。


However, the Abbasid caliphate began to decline towards the end of the 11th century, largely as a result of the Crusades. These were wars waged by European Christian powers to regain control of the holy sites in the Holy Land. Although the Crusades did not directly overthrow the Abbasids, they weakened the Caliphate by draining its resources and exacerbating internal divisions. At the same time, from the middle of the 13th century, the Mongol invasions posed an even greater threat to the Islamic world. The Mongols, led by chiefs such as Genghis Khan and his successors, conquered vast territories in Asia, including Muslim regions.
然而,主要由于十字军东征,阿拔斯王朝在 11 世纪末开始衰落。十字军东征是欧洲基督教列强为夺回对圣地的控制权而发动的战争。虽然十字军东征没有直接推翻阿巴斯王朝,但却消耗了哈里发的资源,加剧了内部分裂,从而削弱了哈里发的势力。与此同时,从 13 世纪中叶开始,蒙古人的入侵对伊斯兰世界构成了更大的威胁。蒙古人在成吉思汗及其继承者等首领的率领下,征服了包括穆斯林地区在内的亚洲大片领土。


The high point of this period of crisis for the Abbasids was the Mongol capture of Baghdad in 1258, led by Hulagu Khan. This conquest not only marked the end of the Abbasid caliphate, but also led to massive destruction and loss of life, bringing to an end the golden age of Islamic civilisation. By the end of the 13th century, the Islamic world had been profoundly transformed, caught between the Crusades in the west and the Mongol invasions in the east. These events not only changed the political structure of Islam, but also had a lasting impact on its cultural, scientific and religious development.
对阿巴斯王朝来说,这段危机时期的高潮是 1258 年蒙古人在忽剌古汗的率领下攻占巴格达。这次征服不仅标志着阿拔斯王朝哈里发统治的结束,还导致了大规模的破坏和人员伤亡,结束了伊斯兰文明的黄金时代。到 13 世纪末,伊斯兰世界在西方十字军东征和东方蒙古入侵的夹击下发生了深刻的变化。这些事件不仅改变了伊斯兰教的政治结构,还对其文化、科学和宗教发展产生了持久的影响。


Between 1258 and 1500, the Muslim world remained very fragile between the Crusades and the Mongols. The creation of the Ottoman Empire and the Sefevid Empire (1501-1736) stabilised it.
1258 年至 1500 年间,穆斯林世界在十字军东征和蒙古人入侵之间一直非常脆弱。奥斯曼帝国和塞夫维德帝国(1501-1736 年)的建立稳定了局势。


[[Fichier:MOMCENC - the gunpowder empires.png|vignette|centré]]
[[Fichier:MOMCENC - the gunpowder empires.png|vignette|centré]]
   
   
The map shows the geographical distribution of the three great Muslim empires of the 16th to 18th centuries, often referred to as the "Gunpowder Empires" because of their innovative use of gunpowder in military expansion and consolidation of power. These empires were the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire and the Mughal Empire. The Ottoman Empire, in green, with its capital in Constantinople (now Istanbul), stretched across Anatolia, the Middle East, part of North Africa and the Balkans into Europe. It was an empire that not only made revolutionary use of gunpowder, but also left a lasting legacy in the region in terms of architecture, administration and culture. The area in orange represents the Safavid Empire, centred in Persia (now Iran). The Safavids are notable for establishing Duodecimal Shiism as the official religion of the Empire, which helped shape the religious identity of the region. The Safavid capital was Isfahan, famous for its splendid architecture and its role as a centre for the arts and commerce. In purple, the Mughal Empire covers a large part of the Indian subcontinent. Founded by Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, the Mughal Empire is known for its wealth, its patronage of the arts and architecture - such as the famous Taj Mahal - and its relatively progressive and pluralist administration under emperors such as Akbar. This map illustrates a period when these empires dominated world politics and trade, thanks in part to their military advances and economic power. Their legacy is reflected in the modern borders, languages, religion and culture of the regions they ruled. The period of the Gunpowder Empires was also marked by important cultural and scientific exchanges, frequent territorial wars and flourishing intercontinental trade.
该地图显示了 16 世纪至 18 世纪三大穆斯林帝国的地理分布,由于它们在军事扩张和巩固权力方面创新性地使用了火药,因此常被称为 "火药帝国"。这些帝国是奥斯曼帝国、萨法维帝国和莫卧儿帝国。绿色的奥斯曼帝国以君士坦丁堡(今伊斯坦布尔)为首都,横跨安纳托利亚、中东、北非部分地区和巴尔干半岛,一直延伸到欧洲。这个帝国不仅革命性地使用了火药,还在建筑、行政和文化方面为该地区留下了持久的遗产。橙色区域代表萨非帝国,以波斯(今伊朗)为中心。萨法维王朝的显著特点是将十二进制什叶派确立为帝国的官方宗教,这有助于塑造该地区的宗教特征。萨法维王朝的首都是伊斯法罕,以其辉煌的建筑和作为艺术和商业中心而闻名。紫色的莫卧儿帝国覆盖了印度次大陆的大部分地区。莫卧儿帝国由塔默兰和成吉思汗的后裔巴布尔建立,以其财富、对艺术和建筑(如著名的泰姬陵)的赞助以及在阿克巴等皇帝领导下相对进步和多元化的管理而闻名。这幅地图展示了这些帝国主宰世界政治和贸易的时期,这部分归功于它们的军事进步和经济实力。他们的遗产反映在其统治地区的现代边界、语言、宗教和文化中。火药帝国时期也有重要的文化和科学交流、频繁的领土战争和繁荣的洲际贸易。


The capture of Cairo by the Ottomans in 1517 was another important milestone in Islamic history, marking the expansion of the Ottoman Empire and its claim to the title of Caliphate. This period marked the beginning of Ottoman hegemony over a large part of the Muslim world, which was to last for several centuries. Under Selim I, the Ottomans defeated the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria, extending their empire across the Middle East, North Africa and parts of Europe. With this expansion, Selim I claimed the title of Caliph, asserting not only political power but also religious authority over Sunni Muslims. The transfer of the centre of the Caliphate to Istanbul, the Ottoman capital, strengthened the position of the Ottoman Empire as a major power both in the Islamic world and on the international stage. However, by the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline. Faced with internal and external challenges, including the rise of nationalism among its territories, competition from European powers, and economic problems, the empire began to lose influence and territory.
1517 年奥斯曼人攻占开罗是伊斯兰历史上的另一个重要里程碑,标志着奥斯曼帝国的扩张及其对哈里发称号的宣称。这一时期标志着奥斯曼帝国开始对穆斯林世界的大部分地区实行霸权,这种霸权将持续几个世纪。在塞利姆一世的统治下,奥斯曼帝国击败了埃及和叙利亚的马穆鲁克苏丹国,将帝国版图扩展到中东、北非和欧洲部分地区。随着帝国的扩张,塞利姆一世获得了哈里发的称号,不仅拥有了政治权力,还对逊尼派穆斯林拥有了宗教权威。哈里发的中心转移到奥斯曼帝国的首都伊斯坦布尔,加强了奥斯曼帝国在伊斯兰世界和国际舞台上的大国地位。然而,到 19 世纪末,奥斯曼帝国走向衰落。面对内部和外部的挑战,包括领土内民族主义的兴起、欧洲列强的竞争和经济问题,帝国开始失去影响力和领土。


Despite this decline, the Ottoman Empire retained the title of Caliphate until its abolition. Although the title of Caliph lost much of its actual political significance, it retained symbolic and religious importance. The Caliph was still regarded by many Muslims as the spiritual leader of the Sunni community, even if this position was no longer backed by substantial political or military power. The end of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of the Caliphate after the First World War in 1924 by the Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk marked the end of an era in Islamic history. This left a vacuum in terms of Sunni religious leadership that continues to influence political and religious dynamics in the contemporary Muslim world.
尽管衰落,奥斯曼帝国仍保留着哈里发的头衔,直到其被废除。虽然哈里发头衔失去了很多实际的政治意义,但它仍具有象征意义和宗教重要性。许多穆斯林仍将哈里发视为逊尼派的精神领袖,尽管这一地位不再有实质性的政治或军事力量作为后盾。1924 年第一次世界大战后,奥斯曼帝国灭亡,穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克领导下的土耳其共和国废除了哈里发政权,这标志着伊斯兰历史上一个时代的结束。这在逊尼派宗教领袖方面留下了真空,并继续影响着当代穆斯林世界的政治和宗教动态。


=== The Abolition of the Caliphate and the Modernisation of Turkey ===  
=== 哈里发的废除与土耳其的现代化 ===


The abolition of the Caliphate in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, represented a decisive moment in the modern history of the Muslim world. This decision marked the official end of the institution of the Caliphate, which had been a central feature of Islamic governance for almost thirteen centuries. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a reformist and visionary leader, was determined to modernise and secularise Turkey in the wake of the fall of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War. As part of his radical reforms, he sought to transform Turkey into a secular nation-state, moving away from the structures and ideologies of the Ottoman Empire. The abolition of the Caliphate was a key step in this process. In March 1924, the Turkish National Assembly abolished the Caliphate, expelling the last Caliph, Abdülmecid II, and marking the end of one of Islam's oldest and most symbolic institutions. The decision was motivated by Atatürk's desire to promote a national Turkish identity and reduce the influence of Islam on state policy.
1924 年,土耳其共和国创始人穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克废除了哈里发制度,这是穆斯林世界现代史上的一个决定性时刻。这一决定标志着哈里发制度的正式终结,而哈里发制度是近 13 个世纪以来伊斯兰治理的核心特征。穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克是一位具有远见卓识的改革派领袖,他决心在第一次世界大战后奥斯曼帝国灭亡之后,实现土耳其的现代化和世俗化。作为其激进改革的一部分,他试图将土耳其转变为一个世俗的民族国家,摆脱奥斯曼帝国的结构和意识形态。废除哈里发是这一进程中的关键一步。1924 年 3 月,土耳其国民议会废除了哈里发制度,驱逐了最后一任哈里发阿卜杜勒迈西德二世,标志着伊斯兰教最古老、最具象征意义的制度之一的终结。做出这一决定的动机是阿塔图尔克希望促进土耳其的民族认同,减少伊斯兰教对国家政策的影响。


The abolition of the Caliphate had a profound impact on the Muslim world. It left a vacuum of religious leadership in Sunni Islam and raised questions about religious and political authority in Islam. Many Muslims around the world were shocked by the decision, and it sparked debate about the nature of leadership in Islam and the role of religion in modern society. Since then, no state or movement has succeeded in re-establishing the Caliphate in a widely recognised manner, although the concept of the Caliphate has continued to feature prominently in Islamic discourse. Atatürk's abolition of the Caliphate remains a significant event in the history of Islam and continues to influence discussions on the relationship between Islam and the state in the contemporary Muslim world.
哈里发的废除对穆斯林世界产生了深远的影响。它给逊尼派伊斯兰教留下了一个宗教领导真空,并引发了对伊斯兰教宗教和政治权威的质疑。世界各地的许多穆斯林都对这一决定感到震惊,并引发了关于伊斯兰教领导权的性质和宗教在现代社会中的作用的辩论。自那以后,尽管哈里发的概念一直在伊斯兰言论中占据重要地位,但没有任何国家或运动成功地以广受认可的方式重建了哈里发国。阿塔图尔克废除哈里发统治仍然是伊斯兰教历史上的一个重要事件,并继续影响着当代穆斯林世界关于伊斯兰教与国家之间关系的讨论。


=== The Emergence and Fall of the Islamic State of Daesh ===  
=== 达伊什伊斯兰国的兴起与衰落 ===


Between 2014 and 2019, a significant event took place in the contemporary context of Islam with the self-proclamation of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as Caliph. Al-Baghdadi, the leader of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (EIIS), also known as Daesh, declared the formation of a caliphate over the territories under his organisation's control in Iraq and Syria. This proclamation, made in June 2014, was widely rejected by the global Muslim community, both religious leaders and governments. Daesh's actions and ideology have been condemned as blatantly contradictory to the principles and teachings of Islam. The brutality and extremism of Daesh, including its acts of violence, mass executions and human rights violations, have been universally denounced.
2014 年至 2019 年期间,当代伊斯兰教发生了一件大事,阿布-贝克尔-巴格达迪自封为哈里发。伊拉克和叙利亚伊斯兰国(EIIS)(又称达伊什)领导人巴格达迪宣布在其组织控制的伊拉克和叙利亚领土上建立哈里发国。这一宣言于 2014 年 6 月发布,遭到了全球穆斯林社区、宗教领袖和各国政府的广泛反对。达伊什的行动和意识形态被谴责为公然违背伊斯兰教的原则和教义。达伊什的残暴和极端主义,包括其暴力行为、大规模处决和侵犯人权的行为,受到普遍谴责。


Daesh's so-called caliphate has attempted to establish governance based on an extreme and literal interpretation of Islamic law, but has met with opposition and hostility both locally and internationally. An international coalition, including many Muslim countries, was formed to combat Daesh, resulting in the gradual loss of its territory and the significant weakening of the organisation. In October 2019, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi was killed in a US military operation in Syria, a blow to Daesh's leadership and symbolising the effective end of its so-called caliphate. This period highlighted the challenges facing the contemporary Muslim world, particularly in relation to issues of extremism, governance and Islamic identity. Al-Baghdadi's attempt to revive the concept of the caliphate was seen as a distortion of Islamic principles and raised important questions about the future of governance and religious authority in Islam.
达伊什所谓的哈里发国试图根据对伊斯兰法的极端和字面解释建立治理,但遭到了当地和国际社会的反对和敌视。包括许多穆斯林国家在内的国际联盟成立,以打击达伊什,导致其领土逐渐丧失,组织实力大大削弱。2019 年 10 月,阿布-贝克尔-巴格达迪在美国在叙利亚的一次军事行动中被击毙,这是对达伊沙领导层的一次打击,象征着其所谓的哈里发国的有效终结。这一时期凸显了当代穆斯林世界面临的挑战,尤其是在极端主义、治理和伊斯兰身份认同等问题上。巴格达迪试图恢复哈里发的概念,这被视为对伊斯兰原则的歪曲,并对伊斯兰教治理和宗教权威的未来提出了重要问题。


=== Pre-Islamic Period and the Age of Ignorance: "Jahiliya" ===  
=== 前伊斯兰时期和无知时代:"贾希礼亚"(Jahiliya)===


The notion of "Jahiliya" in Islam is a key concept in understanding the Muslim perception of history and society. Jahiliya, which literally translates as "period of ignorance", refers to the pre-Islamic era in Arabia, before the revelation of the Koran to the prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. This period is often characterised in Islamic sources as one of moral and spiritual darkness. The Jahiliya is associated with practices considered incompatible with the teachings of Islam, such as polytheism, social injustice, moral decadence and tribal conflicts. The message of Islam, with its emphasis on monotheism, ethics, social justice and the formation of a community united under faith in one God, is therefore seen as a radical break with the traditions and practices of the Jahiliya.
伊斯兰教中的 "Jahiliya "概念是理解穆斯林历史和社会观念的一个关键概念。Jahiliya "直译为 "无知时期",指的是 7 世纪先知穆罕默德得到《古兰经》启示之前的阿拉伯前伊斯兰时代。伊斯兰文献通常将这一时期描述为道德和精神的黑暗时期。贾希利耶与多神教、社会不公、道德堕落和部落冲突等被认为与伊斯兰教义不相容的习俗有关。伊斯兰教的教义强调一神论、伦理道德、社会正义以及在对真主的信仰下形成一个团结的群体,因此被视为与 蒙昧时代的传统和习俗彻底决裂。


In contemporary Islamic discourse, the term Jahiliya is sometimes used to describe situations or societies perceived to be far removed from Islamic principles, even beyond the pre-Islamic Arab context. Some Muslim intellectuals and thinkers have used the concept of Jahiliya to criticise what they consider to be corrupt or un-Islamic aspects of modern society, including in Muslim societies themselves. However, this use of the term Jahiliya in a contemporary context is often controversial and debated within the Muslim community. For the majority of Muslims, Jahiliya remains primarily a historical concept, referring specifically to pre-Islamic Arabia and its traditions. Jahiliya is an important notion in Islam, as it symbolises not only a historical past, but also a state of being that Islam seeks to transcend through its teachings on spirituality, morality and community. In spatial terms, Dar al Islam (land of Islam) and Dar al Harb (land of war). There is also a difference between the people: those of the book (Al-Kithab), who adhere to the monotheistic religions and are invited to adhere to Islam, and the others (who disappear).
在当代伊斯兰言论中,Jahiliya 一词有时被用来描述被认为与伊斯兰原则相去甚远的情况或社会,甚至超越了伊斯兰之前的阿拉伯背景。一些穆斯林知识分子和思想家使用 Jahiliya 这一概念来批评他们认为现代社会(包括穆斯林社会本身)的腐败或非伊斯兰的方面。然而,在当代背景下使用 "真主慈悲"(Jahiliya)一词在穆斯林社会中经常引起争议和辩论。对大多数穆斯林来说,"真主至上 "仍然主要是一个历史概念,特指伊斯兰教以前的阿拉伯及其传统。蒙昧时代是伊斯兰教的一个重要概念,因为它不仅象征着历史上的过去,而且还象征着伊 斯兰教试图通过其有关精神、道德和社区的教义来超越的一种存在状态。在空间上,Dar al Islam(伊斯兰教的土地)和 Dar al Harb(战争的土地)。人民之间也有区别:信奉一神教并被邀请信奉伊斯兰教的 "一本教徒"(Al-Kithab)和其他人(消失者)。


=== The Status of Non-Muslims in Islam: "Dhimmi" ===  
=== 非穆斯林在伊斯兰教中的地位:"迪米" ===


In the historical context of classical Islam, the concept of "Dhimmi" is an important notion for understanding how Muslim societies interacted with non-Muslims. Dhimmis are non-Muslim citizens living in an Islamic state, enjoying special protection and certain rights under Islamic law, while being subject to certain restrictions and obligations. According to the principles of Sharia (Islamic law), Dhimmis were mainly adherents of monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Judaism. They were allowed to practise their religion, administer their own community affairs and were protected by the Muslim state. In exchange for this protection and the right to practise their religion, Dhimmis had to pay a special tax called the "jizya". The jizya was seen as a symbol of the Dhimmis' submission to Muslim authority and in exchange for exemption from military service, which was compulsory for Muslim citizens.
在古典伊斯兰教的历史背景下,"迪米 "概念是了解穆斯林社会如何与非穆斯林互动的一个重要概念。迪米人是生活在伊斯兰国家的非穆斯林公民,根据伊斯兰法律享有特殊保护和某些权利,同时也受到某些限制并承担某些义务。根据伊斯兰教法的原则,迪米人主要信奉基督教和犹太教等一神教。他们可以信奉自己的宗教,管理自己的社区事务,并受到穆斯林国家的保护。为了换取这种保护和信奉宗教的权利,迪米人必须缴纳一种名为 "吉兹亚 "的特别税。吉兹亚被视为迪米人服从穆斯林权威的象征,也是他们免服兵役的交换条件,因为穆斯林公民必须服兵役。


This approach was partly based on the teachings of the Koran and the Sunna (tradition of the Prophet Muhammad), which advocate tolerance towards the "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab), the term used to designate Jews and Christians, who, like Muslims, adhere to revealed scriptures. It is important to note that the application of these principles has varied over time and from region to region. In some periods and regions, Dhimmis enjoyed considerable freedom and tolerance, while in other contexts they could be subject to stricter restrictions and discrimination.
这种做法的部分依据是《古兰经》和 "逊奈"(先知穆罕默德的传统)的教义,其中提倡对 "经书之民"(Ahl al-Kitab)的宽容。值得注意的是,这些原则的应用随着时间的推移和地区的不同而有所不同。在某些时期和地区,迪米人享有相当大的自由和宽容,而在其他情况下,他们可能受到更严格的限制和歧视。


With the decline of traditional Islamic empires and the rise of modern nation-states, Dhimmi status gradually lost its practical significance. In the contemporary Muslim world, the principles of citizenship and equal rights regardless of religion have largely replaced the traditional system of Dhimma. However, the historical concept of Dhimma remains a subject of interest and debate among scholars and thinkers, both for understanding the history of Islam and for its implications for contemporary interfaith relations.
随着传统伊斯兰帝国的衰落和现代民族国家的崛起,"迪米 "身份逐渐失去了实际意义。在当代穆斯林世界,公民权和不分宗教的平等权利原则在很大程度上取代了传统的 "迪玛 "制度。然而,历史上的 "迪玛 "概念仍然是学者和思想家们感兴趣和争论的话题,这既是为了了解伊斯兰教的历史,也是为了了解其对当代宗教间关系的影响。


=== Tolerance and the treatment of "People of the Book" ===  
=== 宽容和对待 "圣训之人" ===


The concept of "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab) in Islam, which refers primarily to Jews and Christians, is centred on tolerance rather than equality in the modern sense of the term. In medieval Islamic societies, this status was a way of recognising and respecting the presence of non-Muslim religious communities within the Islamic state, while establishing a specific legal framework for their integration and interaction with the Muslim majority.
伊斯兰教中 "圣书之人"(Ahl al-Kitab)的概念主要指犹太人和基督徒,其核心是宽容,而不是现代意义上的平等。在中世纪的伊斯兰社会中,这种地位是承认和尊重伊斯兰国家内非穆斯林宗教团体存在的一种方式,同时也为他们与穆斯林多数群体的融合和互动建立了一个特定的法律框架。


The principles of Sharia (Islamic law) grant the People of the Book certain rights and protections as monotheistic communities with revealed scriptures. They were allowed to practise their religion, maintain their places of worship, and be judged according to their own laws in matters of marriage, divorce and other personal matters. However, this status did not imply complete equality with Muslims within the political and social framework of the time. Dhimmis (non-Muslims living under Muslim protection) had to pay a special tax, the jizya, and were often subject to certain legal and social restrictions. For example, they could be restricted in building new places of worship or publicly manifesting their faith. They were also exempt from military service, which was compulsory for Muslims.
伊斯兰教法(伊斯兰教法)的原则赋予 "圣书之民 "某些权利,并保护他们作为拥有启示经文的一神教团体。他们可以信奉自己的宗教,保留自己的礼拜场所,并在结婚、离婚和其他个人事务上根据自己的法律接受审判。然而,这种地位并不意味着在当时的政治和社会框架内与穆斯林完全平等。迪米人(生活在穆斯林保护下的非穆斯林)必须缴纳特别税--吉兹亚(jizya),并经常受到某些法律和社会限制。例如,他们在建造新的礼拜场所或公开表达自己的信仰时可能会受到限制。他们还可以免服兵役,而穆斯林必须服兵役。


It is important to stress that the implementation and interpretation of these rules varied considerably depending on the period and region. In some historical contexts, communities of People of the Book flourished under Muslim rule, contributing significantly to society, culture and the economy. In other cases, they have faced harsher restrictions and discrimination. In the contemporary context, the concept of the People of the Book and the status of Dhimmi have lost much of their practical relevance, with modern Muslim states generally moving towards principles of citizenship and equal rights, regardless of religion. Nevertheless, these historical concepts remain important for understanding how medieval Islamic societies managed religious diversity and inter-community relations.
必须强调的是,这些规则的执行和解释因时代和地区的不同而有很大差异。在某些历史背景下,"圣书之民 "社区在穆斯林统治下蓬勃发展,为社会、文化和经济做出了重大贡献。而在另一些情况下,他们则面临更严厉的限制和歧视。在当代背景下,"圣书之民 "的概念和 "迪米 "的地位已经失去了很大的实际意义,现代穆斯林国家普遍倾向于不分宗教信仰的公民权和平等权利原则。不过,这些历史概念对于了解中世纪伊斯兰社会如何处理宗教多样性和族群间关系仍然非常重要。


=== Differences and Common Ground: Sunnism vs Shi'ism ===
=== 差异与共同点:逊尼派与什叶派 ===


==== The Shi'ite Tradition and its different interpretations ====  
==== 什叶派传统及其不同解释 ====


For the Shi'ites, the legitimacy of leadership after the death of Muhammad is based on the principle of divine designation and the family lineage of the Prophet. They believe that the Caliphate should have fallen to Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his descendants, the Imams. The Shiites believe that these Imams, who come from the line of Ali and Fatima (Mohammed's daughter), possess unique spiritual and temporal authority due to their blood relationship with Mohammed and their divine designation. This belief has given rise to a strong culture of martyrdom within Shi'ism, not least because of the tragedies and persecutions suffered by Ali and his descendants, particularly Husayn ibn Ali, who was killed at the Battle of Kerbala. Husayn's martyrdom is central to Shi'ism, symbolising the struggle against injustice and tyranny.
对于什叶派来说,穆罕默德死后领导权的合法性是基于神的指定原则和先知的家族血统。他们认为,哈里发应由穆罕默德的堂兄兼女婿阿里--阿比-塔里卜及其后代伊玛目继承。什叶派认为,这些伊玛目来自阿里和法蒂玛(穆罕默德的女儿)的后裔,由于他们与穆罕默德的血缘关系和神圣的称号,他们拥有独特的精神和世俗权威。这种信仰在什叶派中形成了一种强烈的殉教文化,尤其是因为阿里及其后裔,特别是在卡尔巴拉战役中被杀的侯赛因-伊本-阿里,曾遭受过悲剧和迫害。侯赛因的殉难是什叶派的核心,象征着与不公正和暴政的斗争。


On the other hand, the Sunni majority of Islam does not recognise the hereditary religious authority of the Shia imams. For Sunnis, the caliph must be chosen by consensus or election from among the Muslim community (Ummah) and need not be a direct descendant of Muhammad. Sunnis focus on the Sunna, the teachings and practices of Muhammad, as the source of religious authority, and reject the idea that a specific intermediate authority is needed between God and the believer. For them, religious scholars (ulama) and jurists (fuqaha) play an important role in interpreting the Koran and the Sunna, but they are not considered to have divine or infallible authority. These differences between Shiites and Sunnis in terms of leadership, authority and religious interpretation are at the root of many of the theological, ritual and political differences that characterise these two main branches of Islam.
另一方面,伊斯兰教的逊尼派多数不承认什叶派伊玛目世袭的宗教权威。逊尼派认为,哈里发必须从穆斯林群体(乌玛)中通过协商一致或选举产生,不一定是穆罕默德的直系后裔。逊尼派注重 "圣行",即穆罕默德的教义和实践,将其作为宗教权威的来源,反对在真主和信徒之间需要一个特定的中间权威的观点。对他们来说,宗教学者(ulama)和法学家(fuqaha)在解释《古兰经》和 "圣行 "方面发挥着重要作用,但他们并不被视为具有神性或无懈可击的权威。什叶派和逊尼派在领导权、权威和宗教解释方面的这些差异是伊斯兰教两大分支在神学、礼仪和政治方面存在许多分歧的根源。


Shiism is subdivided into several branches, each with its own interpretation of the succession of imams after Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first imam according to the Shiites. The Zaydites, who are mainly found in Yemen, recognise Zayd ibn Ali, Husayn's grandson, as their fifth Imam. They differ from other Shiites in that they do not require the Imam to be a direct descendant of Husayn through his eldest son. The Zaydites have played an important role in the history of Yemen and continue to influence Yemeni politics. The Ismailis, for their part, follow the line of Imams up to the seventh, Ismail ibn Jafar, from whom they take their name. They diverged from Dualism after the sixth imam, Jafar al-Sadiq, recognising Ismail as the next legitimate imam. The Ismailis are known for their esoteric interpretation of the Koran and their rich intellectual tradition. This branch gave rise to the order of Assassins in the Middle Ages and is represented today by the Aga Khan.
什叶派又分为几个分支,每个分支对什叶派认为的第一任伊玛目阿里-本-阿比-塔里卜之后的伊玛目继承都有自己的解释。扎伊德派主要分布在也门,他们承认侯赛因的孙子扎伊德-本-阿里为第五任伊玛目。他们与其他什叶派的不同之处在于,他们不要求伊玛目必须是侯赛因长子的直系后裔。扎伊德派在也门历史上扮演着重要角色,并继续影响着也门的政治。伊斯玛仪派则追随伊玛目世系,直至第七世伊斯玛仪-本-贾法尔,他们的名字就来源于伊斯玛仪。他们在第六任伊玛目贾法尔-萨迪克之后脱离了二元论,承认伊斯梅尔为下一任合法伊玛目。伊斯玛仪派以其对《古兰经》的深奥解释和丰富的知识传统而著称。这一分支在中世纪产生了刺客组织,如今的代表人物是阿迦汗。


Duodeciman Shiism, which is in the majority among today's Shiites, recognises a succession of twelve Imams, the last of whom is Muhammad al-Mahdi. Born in 868, the twelfth imam, according to Duodecimal beliefs, entered occultation in 941. Duodecimans believe that he will return at the end of time as the Mahdi, to establish justice and peace. This belief in the Hidden Imam is a central element of Duodecimal theology and plays an important role in the eschatological expectations of the Shiites. Shiism, with its various branches, thus represents a rich and diverse tradition within Islam, characterised by a particular emphasis on the figure of the Imam, spirituality and the expectation of the Mahdi's return.
十二伊玛目什叶派在今天的什叶派中占多数,承认十二伊玛目的继承,其中最后一位是穆罕默德-迈赫迪(Muhammad al-Mahdi)。十二伊玛目生于 868 年,根据十二门徒教派的信仰,他于 941 年进入隐世状态。十二伊玛目信仰认为,他将在末世以马赫迪的身份回归,建立正义与和平。对隐藏伊玛目的信仰是十二使徒神学的核心要素,在什叶派的末世论期望中扮演着重要角色。因此,什叶派及其各个分支代表了伊斯兰教中丰富多样的传统,其特点是特别强调伊玛目的形象、精神信仰和对马赫迪回归的期望。


==== Sunni Islam: Legal and Theological Schools ====  
==== 逊尼派伊斯兰教:法律和神学流派 ====


In Sunni Islam, the diversity of jurisprudential and theological interpretations has given rise to several schools of thought, known as Madhahib. These schools do not represent sectarian divisions, but rather different methodological approaches to interpreting the Sharia, Islamic law. The four main schools are the Hanafites, the Malekites, the Shafiites and the Hanbalites.
在逊尼派伊斯兰教中,法学和神学解释的多样性产生了多个思想流派,即所谓的 "马德希布"(Madhahib)。这些学派并不代表教派划分,而是解释伊斯兰教法(Sharia)的不同方法论。四大派别是哈乃斐派、马勒基派、沙菲派和汉巴派。


The Hanafi school, founded by Abu Hanifa in the 8th century, is renowned for its rational approach to jurisprudence. Abu Hanifa, a pioneer in the field of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), emphasised the importance of reason and personal opinion (ra'y) in the interpretation of religious texts. This school is particularly influential in South Asia, Turkey and the Balkans. The Malekite school, established by Malik ibn Anas, emphasises the practices and traditions of the community of Medina, considered to be a model of Islamic society, as this is where the Prophet Muhammad spent the last years of his life. Predominant in North Africa and parts of sub-Saharan Africa, this school is distinguished by its adherence to the hadith, the accounts of the acts and sayings of the prophet. Al-Shafii, founder of the Shafiite school in the early 9th century, introduced a rigorous system that combined tradition (hadith) with analogy (qiyas) and consensus (ijma). His teachings played a crucial role in the codification of Islamic jurisprudence. This school is widely followed in Egypt, South-East Asia and parts of East Africa. Finally, the Hanbalite school, initiated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, is considered the most conservative of the four. Ibn Hanbal was an ardent defender of the hadith as the principal source of Islamic law, rejecting the use of human reason in the interpretation of sacred texts. His school had a notable influence in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States.
哈乃斐派由阿布-哈尼法于 8 世纪创立,以其理性的法理学方法而闻名。阿布-哈尼法是伊斯兰法学(fiqh)领域的先驱,他强调理性和个人观点(ra'y)在解释宗教经文中的重要性。该学派在南亚、土耳其和巴尔干地区尤其具有影响力。马利克派由马利克-伊本-阿纳斯(Malik ibn Anas)创立,强调麦地那社区的习俗和传统,麦地那被认为是伊斯兰社会的典范,因为先知穆罕默德就是在那里度过了他生命的最后几年。该学派主要分布在北非和撒哈拉以南非洲的部分地区,其特点是坚持圣训,即先知的行为和言论的记载。沙菲派的创始人沙菲(Al-Shafii)于 9 世纪初引入了一套将传统(圣训)、类比(qiyas)和共识(ijma)相结合的严格体系。他的学说对伊斯兰法学的编纂起到了至关重要的作用。该学派在埃及、东南亚和东非部分地区广为流传。最后,由艾哈迈德-伊本-罕百里(Ahmad ibn Hanbal)开创的罕百里学派被认为是四大学派中最保守的。伊本-罕百里是圣训作为伊斯兰教法主要来源的积极捍卫者,反对在解释圣典时使用人类理性。他的学派在沙特阿拉伯和海湾国家具有显著影响。


These legal schools reflect the diversity and richness of Sunni Islamic thought. They have helped to shape the way Muslims have understood and practised their faith over the centuries. Although there are differences between these schools in terms of methodologies and jurisprudential conclusions, they share a mutual respect and are all recognised as valid interpretations of Islamic law in the Sunni world. This diversity reflects Islam's ability to adapt to different cultural and historical contexts, while maintaining a consistent framework of belief and practice.
这些法律流派反映了逊尼派伊斯兰思想的多样性和丰富性。几个世纪以来,它们帮助塑造了穆斯林理解和实践其信仰的方式。虽然这些学派在方法论和法学结论方面存在差异,但它们相互尊重,都被公认为是逊尼派世界对伊斯兰法的有效解释。这种多样性反映了伊斯兰教能够适应不同的文化和历史背景,同时保持信仰和实践框架的一致性。


The Middle East, rich in cultural and religious diversity, is home to several religious groups which, although sharing roots with Shia Islam, have developed distinctive beliefs and practices. These groups, often labelled syncretic or heterodox, include the Alawites in Syria, the Qizilbash in Iran and Anatolia, the Druze mainly in Lebanon, Syria and Israel, and the Alevis in Turkey.
中东地区拥有丰富的文化和宗教多样性,是多个宗教团体的家园,这些团体虽然与什叶派伊斯兰教同根同源,但却形成了独特的信仰和习俗。这些团体通常被称为融合派或异端派,包括叙利亚的阿拉维派、伊朗和安纳托利亚的齐齐尔巴什派、主要分布在黎巴嫩、叙利亚和以色列的德鲁兹派以及土耳其的阿列维派。


The Alawites, concentrated in Syria, evolved from Duodeciman Shiism and incorporated elements of Gnosticism, Christianity and other traditions. Their veneration of Ali as a divine manifestation and other aspects of their theology distinguish them from the main currents of Islam. This particular belief in Ali has often been a source of tension with traditional Sunni and Shia communities. The Qizilbash, originally from Anatolia and Iran, played a key role in the establishment of the Safavid Empire in Iran, and their practice of Shiism venerated the Safavid royal family. The term "Qizilbash" has historically been used to designate a variety of Turkish Shiite groups, characterised by their loyalty to the Safavids. The Druze, whose presence is notable in Lebanon, Syria and Israel, emerged from Ismaili Shiism in the 11th century. Their faith incorporates belief in reincarnation and other unique doctrines, and they practice a degree of religious secrecy. The Druze do not seek to convert others and concentrate on their own community. In Turkey, the Alevis form a distinct group, blending elements of Shiism, Sufism and pre-Islamic Anatolian traditions. They value love, tolerance and spirituality, and differ from orthodox Sunni and Shia practices in their rites of worship and beliefs.
阿拉维派主要集中在叙利亚,由多德西曼什叶派演变而来,并融入了诺斯替主义、基督教和其他传统的元素。他们崇敬阿里是神的化身,其神学的其他方面也使他们有别于伊斯兰教的主要流派。这种对阿里的特殊信仰往往是与传统逊尼派和什叶派社区关系紧张的根源。齐齐尔巴什人最初来自安纳托利亚和伊朗,在伊朗萨法维帝国的建立过程中发挥了关键作用,他们信奉的什叶派崇拜萨法维王室。Qizilbash "一词在历史上曾被用来指代土耳其的各种什叶派团体,其特点是忠于萨法维王朝。德鲁兹人在黎巴嫩、叙利亚和以色列都有显著的存在,他们是在 11 世纪从伊斯玛仪什叶派中产生的。他们的信仰包含转世信仰和其他独特的教义,并实行一定程度的宗教保密。德鲁兹教徒不寻求改变他人的信仰,而是专注于自己的社区。在土耳其,阿列维人是一个独特的群体,融合了什叶派、苏菲派和前伊斯兰安纳托利亚传统的元素。他们重视爱、宽容和精神信仰,在崇拜仪式和信仰方面与正统的逊尼派和什叶派习俗不同。


These communities, with their unique practices and theological interpretations, illustrate the rich religious mosaic of the Middle East. Their traditions, often marked by a syncretism of beliefs and practices, reflect the historical, cultural and religious influences of the region. Although sometimes viewed with suspicion or hostility by more orthodox Islamic currents, these communities continue to play an important role in the social and cultural fabric of their respective countries, testifying to the diversity and complexity of the religious landscapes of the Middle East.
这些社区以其独特的习俗和神学解释,展示了中东丰富的宗教马赛克。他们的传统往往以信仰和习俗的融合为特征,反映了该地区的历史、文化和宗教影响。尽管有时正统伊斯兰教派对这些社区持怀疑或敌视态度,但它们在各自国家的社会和文化结构中继续发挥着重要作用,证明了中东宗教景观的多样性和复杂性。


= Annexes =
= 附录 =
*Ayalon, Ami. [https://books.google.fr/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JbE5AAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=middle+east+language&ots=Wvo91NYiRt&sig=T6p5vSXqeD6V7QCU16TD8_ZSGJ4 Language and change in the Arab Middle East: the evolution of modern political discourse]. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1987.
*Ayalon, Ami. [https://books.google.fr/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JbE5AAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=middle+east+language&ots=Wvo91NYiRt&sig=T6p5vSXqeD6V7QCU16TD8_ZSGJ4 Language and change in the Arab Middle East: the evolution of modern political discourse]. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1987.
*Myhill, John. [https://books.google.fr/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JbE5AAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=middle+east+language&ots=Wvo91NYiRt&sig=T6p5vSXqeD6V7QCU16TD8_ZSGJ4 Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: a historical study]. Vol. 21. John Benjamins Publishing, 2006.
*Myhill, John. [https://books.google.fr/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JbE5AAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=middle+east+language&ots=Wvo91NYiRt&sig=T6p5vSXqeD6V7QCU16TD8_ZSGJ4 Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: a historical study]. Vol. 21. John Benjamins Publishing, 2006.


= References =
= 参考资料 =
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Version actuelle datée du 26 décembre 2023 à 11:05

根据 Yilmaz Özcan 的课程改编。[1][2]

中东地区是古代文明的摇篮和历史贸易路线的交汇点,具有显著的语言、宗教和文化多样性。这种多样性是由无数民族、帝国和运动所塑造的丰富而复杂的历史所产生的。

在语言方面,中东地区的语言杂乱无章,阿拉伯语在埃及和沙特阿拉伯等国占主导地位。波斯语或波斯语是伊朗的主要语言,反映了波斯帝国的传统,而土耳其的官方语言土耳其语则见证了奥斯曼帝国的影响。希伯来语是一种祖传语言,随着 1948 年以色列国的建立,希伯来语经历了一次独特的复活,而库尔德语则在从伊拉克北部到土耳其东南部的多个地区使用。宗教方面,伊斯兰教占主导地位,有逊尼派和什叶派等分支。公元 634 年至 644 年在位的哈里发奥马尔和先知穆罕默德的女婿阿里等历史人物体现了这些分支的雏形。基督教从其起源起就一直存在,尽管政治和社会发生了变化,但埃及的科普特人等群体却一直存在。在以色列,犹太教是核心,以色列国的主要创建者大卫-本-古里安等历史人物就是例证。

中东文化深受这些语言和宗教多样性的影响,在艺术、音乐和烹饪方面有着丰富的表现形式。例如,具有复杂几何图案的伊斯兰艺术反映了宗教对具象表现的禁止。由乌姆-卡尔苏姆(Oum Kalthoum)等代表人物演奏的阿拉伯古典音乐,对地区文化的影响远远超出了语言边界。斋月和波斯诺鲁孜节等节日是宗教和文化传统交织形成独特习俗的例证。

中东的语言多样性[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

中东的语言多样性是其最显著的特征之一,三大语系的存在就说明了这一点:乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系、印欧语系和闪米特语系。

中东语言全景[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系包括在亚洲大部分地区和东欧部分地区使用的语言。在中东地区,该语系主要以土耳其的官方语言土耳其语为代表,土耳其语见证了突厥民族的扩张和奥斯曼帝国在该地区的历史影响。其他语言,如阿塞拜疆和伊朗某些社区使用的阿塞拜疆语,也属于这一语系。印欧语系是世界上最大和最多样化的语系之一,包括波斯语、库尔德语和亚美尼亚语。波斯语是古代波斯帝国和现代伊朗的语言,具有重要的历史和文化意义。库尔德语是分布在伊拉克、伊朗、叙利亚和土耳其的库尔德人使用的语言,亚美尼亚语是亚美尼亚和亚美尼亚人散居地使用的语言,这些语言为我们提供了丰富的语言资源。最后,闪米特语系对中东地区至关重要。阿拉伯语是《古兰经》中的语言,也是许多阿拉伯国家的通用语言,是这个语系中最普遍的语言。希伯来语是一种古老的语言,随着以色列国的建立,希伯来语和其他语言如阿拉米 语和亚述语在现代得到了复兴,尽管这些语言的使用范围较小,但却具有重要的历史和文 化意义。

A language map of the Middle East (Izady).png

这幅彩色地图显示了中东地区使用的语言,并说明了这些语言主要使用地区的人口密度。它按语系和有关地区的人口密度对语言进行了区分。

阿拉伯语的扩张和影响[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

黄色区域代表阿拉伯语占主导地位的人口稠密地区。这包括埃及、沙特阿拉伯、也门、约旦、黎巴嫩等国家。阿拉伯语是闪米特语族的主要语言,在整个阿拉伯半岛及其他地区通用。该地图显示,阿拉伯语在黄色区域占主导地位,表明这些区域人口密度较高。阿拉伯语属于闪米特语族,不仅是一种官方语言,也是中东地区文化和宗教特征的组成部分。

阿拉伯语传播到阿拉伯半岛以外的地区,特别是通过 7 世纪以来的伊斯兰征服,成为该地区最有影响力的语言之一。现在,中东和北非的许多国家都使用阿拉伯语。在埃及等国家,阿拉伯语的文明可以追溯到几千年前,它已经取代了古埃及语等古老语言,成为大多数人的语言。沙特阿拉伯是伊斯兰教的摇篮,也是麦加和麦地那两座圣城的所在地,阿拉伯语在宗教和文化上都具有特别重要的意义。在也门和约旦等其他地区,阿拉伯语有多种方言,反映了该语言固有的多样性。黎巴嫩以其文化和宗教的多样性而闻名,在其历史上也受到许多其他语言的影响,拥有多种阿拉伯方言。因此,该地图证实,阿拉伯语不仅是一种日常交流语言,而且在整个中东地区文化和历史的保护和传承方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

印欧语系和闪米特语系镶嵌画[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

地图上的绿色区域表示印欧语系的存在,它们见证了中东地区民族语言和历史的多样性。例如,波斯语是伊朗的官方语言,具有相当大的文化和文学影响。这种语言可以追溯到古代阿契美尼德帝国,证明了该地区的历史底蕴。库尔德语则是在地理上不连续的地区使用,主要分布在库尔德斯坦山区,横跨土耳其、伊拉克、伊朗和叙利亚等几个现代国家边界。库尔德语是库尔德人的母语,尽管该地区面临同化和政治变革的压力,但库尔德人仍保持着自己的语言和文化。亚美尼亚语是另一种重要的印欧语言,在亚美尼亚和亚美尼亚侨民中使用,尽管经历了历史动荡,包括 20 世纪初的亚美尼亚种族灭绝,亚美尼亚语仍得以保存。亚美尼亚语有自己独特的字母表,创建于 5 世纪,是亚美尼亚民族特性的一个关键要素。这些印欧语系的 "岛屿 "不仅代表了族群的地理分布,也反映了塑造中东地区的复杂迁徙运动和历史互动。语言是文化和集体记忆的载体,它们的分布让我们得以一窥这个充满巨大变革动力的地区的复原、适应和文化保护历史。

地图突出显示了突厥语(以不同深浅的红色为标志)占主导地位的地区。这些语言属于乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系,使用这些语言的民族的历史和文化深受移民和突厥帝国的影响。土耳其的国语土耳其语是这一语系中最显著的代表,它是奥斯曼帝国遗产的直接结果,奥斯曼帝国在鼎盛时期曾疆域辽阔,遍及中东、东南欧和北非。奥斯曼帝国不仅传播其语言,还在其领土上传播其文化、行政管理和宗教影响。阿塞拜疆和伊朗一些社区使用的阿塞拜疆语与土耳其语关系密切,是该地区突厥语的另一个重要分支。这些社区与土耳其和其他突厥民族有着共同的文化和历史联系。

其他突厥语虽然使用较少,但在邻近地区,包括俄罗斯、中亚和高加索的部分地区也有使用。这些语言虽然各具特色,但因其相似的起源和历史发展而具有共同特征。这些突厥语的存在见证了中亚草原游牧民族迁徙的影响,他们穿越中东,在该地区留下了不可磨灭的语言和文化印记。这些语言及其使用者在现代中东的民族和文化多样性中继续发挥着重要作用。

该地图突出了高加索语和其他少数民族语言,以棕色和灰色为代表,揭示了中东语言多样性中经常被忽视的一个方面。这些语言是人口密度较低但语言和文化多样性丰富的地区的特征。高加索地区的语言复杂性尤为突出。格鲁吉亚语等语言是该地区的特有语言,格鲁吉亚语有自己独特的书写系统--卡尔特维利亚语。格鲁吉亚拥有独特的历史和文化,是语言可以概括一个国家特征的鲜明例子。

除格鲁吉亚语外,还有阿布哈兹语和奥塞梯语等世界上其他地方都不使用的高加索语言。这些语言往往在地理和历史上与世隔绝,但却独立生存和发展,形成了独特的语言特点。它们的生存证明了高加索地区各族人民面对数百年的政治和社会变革所表现出的文化韧性。另一方面,少数民族语言可能由小社区使用的语言种类组成,通常反映了丰富的文化遗产和独特的传统。虽然这些语言在使用人数上不占优势,但它们在保护该地区文化多样性和非物质遗产方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此,地图上高加索语言和少数民族语言的分布提醒我们,中东不仅是一个冲突和贸易地区,也是一个语言和文化丰富多彩的地区,但在全球的叙述中却常常被忽视。

这幅地图不仅仅是语言多样性的缩影,它还展示了定居、贸易、征服和文化的历史。中东地区语言和民族的分布受到地理因素、历史帝国、移民运动和政治变革的影响。语言作为文化的载体,反映了这些复杂的动态变化,了解语言对于了解该地区丰富的历史和文化至关重要。地图上的语言不仅仅是简单的交流工具,它们还体现了使用这些语言的文明的灵魂。每种语言都是一种文化身份的体现,承载着千百年来交织在一起的传统、诗歌、故事和哲学。例如,波斯文学的特点是哈菲兹和鲁米等诗人的作品,他们不仅影响了自己的家乡,也影响了世界思想和文学。

突厥语的史诗《Dede Korkut》传达了草原游牧民族的价值观和故事,高加索语的口述历史见证了他们抵抗征服和帝国的历史。即使是只有少数群体使用的少数民族语言,也是独特文化的宝库,为人们了解往往不同于主流文化的生活方式和信仰体系提供了一个窗口。因此,中东的语言地图就像一幅活的马赛克画,每种颜色不仅代表一个使用语言的群体,也代表人类历史的一个篇章。迁徙、征服和贸易塑造了这一地区,但正是语言和文化留存了下来,并继续讲述着这一地区各民族的故事。它们是连接过去、现在和未来的纽带,使遗产得以延续,并在当代互动中继续发展。

方言和少数民族语言:活的文化遗产[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

中东多数民族语言中的方言多样性是一种经常被低估的丰富性。以土耳其语为例,尽管学校教授的是一种标准语言,媒体和政界也使用这种语言,但许多地区方言并存,反映了土耳其不同地区的历史和文化。这些方言在发音、词汇甚至语法方面都与标准土耳其语有很大不同。阿拉伯语也许是这种方言多样性最显著的例子之一。文学阿拉伯语或现代标准阿拉伯语被普遍理解并用于写作和正式讲话中,但在日常生活中,人们使用的各种方言却可能大相径庭,以至于来自遥远地区的人有时很难相互理解。这些方言不仅反映了地理区域,还反映了历史影响,如奥斯曼人、波斯人和法国人在黎凡特的影响。库尔德语也分为几种主要方言,如库尔曼吉语(Kurmandji)、索拉尼语(Sorani)和佩勒瓦尼语(Pehlewani),每种方言都有自己的地区变体。这些库尔德方言之间的差异如此之大,以至于有时会有人要求获得独立的语言地位。至于亚美尼亚语,虽然有一种标准的亚美尼亚语,但世界各地的亚美尼亚人也讲不同的方言,这些方言往往受到他们移居或散居地区语言的影响。除这些主要语言外,中东地区还有约 20 种少数民族语言,反映了人类交流、迁移和适应的复杂历史。这些语言可能只在少数族群中使用,但它们所承载的历史和文化值得认可和保护。它们在如此丰富的语言环境中存在,进一步证明了语言是如何演变并适应其使用环境的,而且往往与该地区的主流语言并行不悖。

语言与国家认同:政治与文化之间[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

与世界其他地区一样,人口迁移和宗教一直是中东地区语言传播和演变的强大媒介。从历史上看,人口迁移对语言的传播起着至关重要的作用。例如,七世纪阿拉伯人在伊斯兰教扩张的推动下入侵,将阿拉伯语传播到中东和北非。这种扩张不仅传播了阿拉伯语,还融合并影响了当地语言,产生了多种不同的阿拉伯方言。同样,突厥帝国的扩张,尤其是奥斯曼帝国的扩张,扩展了突厥语,并在整个中东、巴尔干和北非建立了奥斯曼土耳其语(一种受波斯语和阿拉伯语影响的土耳其语)作为行政和文学语言。宗教也促进了语言的采用和标准化。阿拉伯语作为《古兰经》的语言,成为世界各地穆斯林之间的语言纽带,其使用范围超出了传统的阿拉伯语边界。同样,犹太教和基督教的宗教经文也帮助保存了希伯来语和阿拉米语,即使这些语言已不再被日常使用。中东的语言并非一成不变;它们是各民族、信仰和历史之间不断互动的结果。语言通过贸易、征服、殖民和皈依而传播,形成了我们今天看到的复杂的语言景观。

现代中东民族国家的形成对语言实践产生了相当大的影响。通过建立一种或多种官方语言,国家往往寻求促进统一的民族身份认同,并促进其境内的交流和管理。这种语言政策可能导致民族主义意识的增强,使官方语言成为民族团结的象征和集体认同的关键因素。例如,奥斯曼帝国灭亡后,土耳其于 1923 年建立了土耳其共和国,在土耳其推广标准土耳其语的目的是将该国不同的人口统一在一个单一的土耳其民族身份之下。同样,阿拉伯语国家采用现代标准阿拉伯语也常常与泛阿拉伯民族主义运动联系在一起。然而,标准化和推广国语也可能产生意想不到的后果,特别是会使地区或少数民族语言和方言边缘化。这可能导致其公共使用率下降,有时还会削弱其长期生存能力,甚至导致其消失。例如,许多库尔德少数民族语言和方言在不同国家受到压制,以实现文化同化。

自相矛盾的是,禁止或压制某些语言也可能导致人们对这些语言和方言重新产生兴趣,因为这些语言和方言往往被视为一个社区文化特性的基本要素。在某些情况下,这会引发语言和文化抗议运动。例如,土耳其多年来一直压制亚美尼亚语的公开使用,这导致世界各地的亚美尼亚社区对该语言的认识和欣赏有所提高。归根结底,中东的语言政策反映了构建民族特性与保护文化和语言多样性之间的矛盾。对这些政策的反应多种多样,既有对国语的热情采用,也有作为一种文化保护和政治反抗行为对传统语言的抵制和维护。

宗教信仰全景[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

中东通常被广义地定义为包括安纳托利亚(现代土耳其的亚洲部分)、埃及(虽然在地理上位于北非,但在文化和历史上与中东有联系)和美索不达米亚(相当于现代伊拉克和叙利亚的领土,以及伊朗和土耳其的部分地区)等地区。该地区具有丰富的文化和历史多样性,被公认为世界几大宗教的发祥地。

犹太教是最早的一神教之一,兴起于黎凡特地区,特别是历史上的迦南地区,该地区现划分为以色列和巴勒斯坦领土。犹太教的根源可追溯到 3000 多年前,在该地区的宗教和文化发展中发挥了核心作用。公元 1 世纪从犹太教发展而来的基督教也起源于中东,特别是历史上的犹太地区。它在罗马帝国内外迅速传播,成为世界主要宗教。伊斯兰教是亚伯拉罕三大宗教中的最新宗教,7 世纪初先知穆罕默德在阿拉伯城市麦加得到启示。它迅速传遍阿拉伯半岛,并通过征服和贸易,传播到亚洲、非洲和欧洲的广大地区。除了这些亚伯拉罕宗教外,中东还是琐罗亚斯德教的发源地,琐罗亚斯德教由先知查拉图斯特拉(或琐罗亚斯德)在古波斯(今伊朗)创立。琐罗亚斯德教是伊斯兰教化之前波斯的主要宗教之一,通常被认为是最古老的一神教之一,其善恶斗争的二元论观念影响了其他宗教传统。

每种宗教都为该地区丰富的文化和历史锦绣做出了贡献,并继续深刻影响着现代中东的生活、文化和政治。宗教的多样性和深厚的历史底蕴使中东对世界各地的学者、信徒和游客具有特别重要的意义。

犹太教的基础和演变[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

早期犹太教和一神论[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

犹太教被认为是历史上最早的一神教之一。犹太教兴起于今天的以色列及其周边地区的黎凡特地区,在人类的宗教和文化发展中发挥了至关重要的作用。犹太教的起源可追溯到公元前 2000 年左右,《圣经》中的亚伯拉罕、以撒和雅各被视为犹太教的始祖。犹太教的核心是信仰唯一的神--耶和华(Yahweh),以及《托拉》(Torah)中表达的一系列法律和道德原则,《托拉》是被称为 "塔纳赫"(Tanakh)或 "希伯来圣经"(Hebrew Bible)的大型圣典集的一部分。犹太教与当时其他宗教传统的区别在于其严格的一神论。许多古代文化都信奉多神教,而犹太教则肯定存在一个唯一的主神,他是宇宙的创造者,也是人类的道德指南。

除了宗教层面,犹太教还具有强烈的民族和文化层面。犹太人认为自己不仅是一种信仰的信徒,也是一个民族或国家的成员,共同的历史和传统将他们联系在一起。几个世纪以来,犹太教对许多其他宗教信仰和习俗产生了重大影响,尤其是基督教和伊斯兰教,它们与犹太教有着某些渊源,并承认圣经中的许多犹太人物是先知或重要导师。

亚伯拉罕和犹太族长世系[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

亚伯拉罕通常被视为一神教之父,是犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教的核心人物。根据犹太教传统,亚伯拉罕出生在美索不达米亚的乌尔,而不是希腊的埃德萨。埃德萨是土耳其的一座历史名城,被称为乌尔法,但在《圣经》中与亚伯拉罕的故事并无关联。圣经》中描述了亚伯拉罕奉上帝之命从美索不达米亚前往迦南的旅程,上帝许诺要让亚伯拉罕的后裔成为一个伟大的民族。亚伯拉罕与妻子撒拉及其奴隶夏甲之间复杂的关系是故事的关键因素。无法生育的撒拉将夏甲送给亚伯拉罕,生下了以实玛利。萨拉后来生下了以撒。在犹太传统中,以撒是应许之子,犹太人认为自己是他的后裔。在伊斯兰教传统中,以实玛利通常被视为应许之子,尽管伊斯兰教也承认以撒的重要性。以撒的儿子雅各布也是一个重要人物。根据传统,他有 12 个儿子,他们的后代成为以色列的十二个部落,标志着希伯来人的形成。

埃及出埃及记和西奈山的启示[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

在埃及为奴的故事是犹太历史的另一个基本部分。希伯来人在埃及生活了几个世纪后,在犹太传统中的另一位核心人物摩西的领导下获得了自由。出埃及被称为 "出埃及记",是犹太历史上的一个重要事件,每年的逾越节(Pesach)都会庆祝这一事件。这些故事不仅是宗教叙事,也塑造了犹太民族的文化和历史身份。它们强调了犹太人、他们的土地和他们的信仰之间持续不断的关系,这种关系对于理解犹太文化和历史仍然至关重要。

摩西的形象和西奈山的启示事件是犹太传统中最重要的事件之一,在犹太民族的历史和身份认同中具有深远的意义。根据《圣经》的记载,摩西是在埃及法老家中长大的希伯来人,他被上帝选中,将以色列人从奴役中解救出来。在经历了包括埃及十灾在内的一系列奇迹之后,摩西带领以色列人离开了埃及,这一事件被称为 "出埃及记"。出埃及记》不仅代表了犹太民族的肉体解放,还代表了他们作为一个在上帝领导下的统一民族的崛起。

他们旅程中最关键的时刻是西奈山的启示,根据传统,上帝(耶和华)在那里赐予摩西《圣经》,包括十诫。这一时刻被视为上帝与以色列人之间的基本盟约,他们在此接受了一套指导其精神和社会生活的法律和指令。作为犹太教核心的《圣经》不仅包括律法和教义,还包括犹太民族自创世以来的历史。十诫》尤为重要,因为它们不仅为犹太教,也为基督教,甚至间接为伊斯兰教确立了基本的道德和伦理原则。它们被视为犹太教-基督教传统中法律和道德的基石。这些事件在犹太教中的重要性不容低估。它们不仅是犹太教信仰的核心,也塑造了犹太民族的价值观、习俗和身份。在逾越节(Pesach)上纪念出埃及和在沙窝奥特节(Shavuot)上接受《圣经》,就是这些历史事件如何融入犹太节日和庆祝活动年度周期的例子,不断提醒犹太人民他们的历史和对上帝的承诺。

征服迦南和先知时代[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

出埃及和穿越沙漠之后,以色列人在约书亚的带领下进入了迦南,根据《圣经》记载,这是上帝应许给他们祖先的一块土地。圣经》中描述的这一过程包括一系列战斗和征服,以建立以色列人在该地区的存在。然而,必须指出的是,《圣经》中描述的这些事件的历史准确性在历史学家和考古学家之间存在争议。

公元前 10 世纪在位的大卫王是犹太民族历史上的核心人物。根据传统,他统一了以色列各部落,征服了耶路撒冷,并将其作为王国的首都。耶路撒冷在犹太传统中占据了重要地位,不仅是政治中心,也是精神中心。他的儿子所罗门王因在耶路撒冷建造了第一圣殿而闻名于世。这座圣殿成为犹太人崇拜的中心,并被认为是约柜的所在,约柜里装有在西奈山赐给摩西的律法石板(十诫)。所罗门圣殿不仅是以色列王国主权和统一的象征,也是对犹太人具有重要宗教意义的地方。

以色列王国和犹大王国时期,犹太传统中的重要人物--先知们的活动也是这一时期的特点。这些先知,如以赛亚、耶利米和以西结,在为国王出谋划策、批评社会和道德不公以及提醒人们谨记上帝诫命方面发挥了至关重要的作用。他们的信息和著作是圣经文本的重要组成部分,并继续影响着犹太宗教思想。这一时期对塑造犹太人的身份和信仰至关重要。它确立了耶路撒冷作为犹太教精神核心的地位,并为许多仍是当代犹太教核心的习俗和信仰奠定了基础。

所罗门死后,约公元前 926 年,统一的以色列王国一分为二:北方王国称为以色列,以撒玛利亚为首都;南方王国称为犹大,以耶路撒冷为首都。这种分裂不仅反映了政治和经济上的紧张关系,也反映了两个王国在宗教和文化上的差异。北方王国以色列在领土和人口方面都更大,但由于其地理位置,它也更容易受到外部影响和入侵。

公元前 722 年,当时强大的亚述帝国入侵并征服了撒玛利亚,北方王国最终遭受了毁灭性的失败。这一事件标志着以色列王国的灭亡,大部分人口被驱逐和驱散,这一现象通常被称为 "失落的以色列十部落"。这种驱逐和分散不仅在政治和军事上,而且在文化和宗教认同方面都产生了深远的影响。南方的犹大王国在这一时期幸存下来,但成为包括新巴比伦帝国在内的多个帝国的附庸。然而,随着公元前 586 年巴比伦人征服耶路撒冷并摧毁第一圣殿,犹大最终也灭亡了,随后巴比伦人流放了犹大的精英。这些事件在犹太历史上具有重要意义。它们不仅是政治和军事上的转折点,也是文化和宗教变革的关键时刻。征服、流放和回归的经历对犹太人的思想和文学产生了深远的影响,尤其是《圣经》中大量经文的写作,以及围绕《圣经》和宗教团体对犹太人身份和信仰的强化。

王国的迁移和散居的黎明[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

公元前 722 年,亚述人摧毁了以色列王国,这对以色列人来说是第一次重大灾难(希伯来语称 "Churban")。这次入侵导致北方王国的十个部落离散,也就是人们常说的 "以色列失落的十个部落"。这一离散对犹太民族的集体身份和历史记忆产生了深远的影响。为了应对这些艰难困苦以及在流亡和外国统治下生活的挑战,犹太拉比和学者在保存和解释犹太传统方面发挥了至关重要的作用。不过,需要注意的是,作为犹太口头律法主要汇编的《密西拿》成书较晚,大约在公元 2 世纪末,远在以色列和犹太王国时期之后。密西拿》与《革马拉》(对《密西拿》的注释)一起构成了犹太法典,是拉比犹太教的核心文本。

塔纳赫包括《托拉》(摩西五经)、《先知书》(Nevi'im)和《文集》(Ketuvim,包括诗篇)。以利亚、以赛亚和耶利米等先知生活在不同时期,他们在以色列人的宗教和社会生活中发挥着至关重要的作用,传递着改革、社会正义和忠于上帝的信息。这些先知往往在危机和变革时期行事,他们的教诲和行动反映了犹太民族面临的挑战。他们的著作是《内维亚姆》(Nevi'im)的一部分,是了解犹太教、犹太教精神和犹太民族历史的基础。这些经文在维护犹太特性方面发挥了至关重要的作用,是力量和灵感的源泉,尤其是在遭受迫害和分散的时期。

公元前 587 年,新巴比伦帝国国王尼布甲尼撒二世摧毁了耶路撒冷的第一圣殿,这对犹太人来说是一场重大灾难。这次毁灭伴随着大部分犹太人被驱逐到美索不达米亚,是一次毁灭性的事件,给犹太人的集体意识打上了深深的烙印。巴比伦流放不仅象征着领土和政治上的损失,也象征着深刻的精神和身份危机,迫使犹太人重新思考他们与上帝的关系、他们的历史和他们作为一个民族的身份。公元前 539 年,波斯帝国国王居鲁士大帝征服巴比伦,犹太人开始返回犹太。居鲁士以其宽容和恢复包括犹太人在内的流离失所民族的政策而闻名。根据《圣经》中《以斯拉记》的记载,居鲁士曾颁布诏书,允许犹太人返回犹太并重建耶路撒冷的圣殿。这次回归始于公元前 538 年左右,标志着犹太社区的复兴。

第二圣殿得以重建,但在希律大帝时期并未开始建造。重建圣殿的过程开始得更早,大约在公元前 516 年,从而完成了《圣经》中预言的 70 年流亡期。第二圣殿一直是犹太人的主要宗教和社区中心,直到公元 70 年被罗马人摧毁。希律大帝在位时间更晚(公元前 37-4 年),据说他对第二圣殿进行了大规模的翻修和扩建,使其更加辉煌壮丽。经希律大帝扩建和美化后的圣殿正是耶稣时代的圣殿,《新约圣经》中经常提到它。

圣殿后犹太教和犹太社区的演变[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

公元前 1 世纪罗马征服巴勒斯坦后,巴勒斯坦被罗马统治。公元前 332 年,马其顿的亚历山大大帝征服了该地区,标志着希腊化时期的开始。亚历山大死后,该地区被多个希腊王朝控制,特别是埃及的托勒密王朝和叙利亚的塞琉西王朝。直到公元前 1 世纪,犹太才成为罗马帝国的一个客户王国。在罗马的统治下,犹太人经历了一段时期的压迫,宗教和文化上的紧张关系以及沉重的赋税加剧了这种压迫。公元 70 年,罗马人在未来皇帝提图斯的指挥下摧毁了耶路撒冷的第二圣殿,这对犹太人来说是一个毁灭性事件。这次毁灭发生在犹太人反抗罗马统治的大起义之后。圣殿被视为犹太教的精神和民族中心,圣殿的消失对犹太人的宗教认同和宗教实践产生了深远的影响。圣殿被毁后,犹太人加速了流散(或称 "散居")。虽然在圣殿被毁之前,整个古代世界已经有分散的犹太人社区(例如在埃及、巴比伦、希腊和意大利),但这一事件标志着一个更广泛、更系统的分散时期的开始。许多犹太人逃离或被驱逐出犹太,在罗马帝国内外的不同地区定居下来。这种流散对犹太教产生了持久的影响。没有了圣殿作为敬拜中心,犹太教发生了演变,更加强调祈祷、研读圣典和在犹太会堂进行宗教活动。散居各地的犹太人成为犹太人身份认同的一个核心要素,尽管他们分散在不同的地域,但他们的信仰和历史将他们团结在一起。

从 "希伯来人 "到 "犹太人 "的身份转变是犹太历史的一个重要方面,与领土丧失和政治变革等多种因素有关。希伯来人"(希伯来语 Ivrim)一词最初在《希伯来圣经》中用来指以色列人的祖先,尤其是在他们与其他民族的关系中。该词通常与犹太历史的早期时期有关,尤其是族长(亚伯拉罕、以撒、雅各)和出埃及时期。另一方面,"犹太人"(希伯来语为 Yehudim)一词来源于 "犹大"(Yehuda),犹大是雅各布的十二个儿子之一,也是以色列十二个部落之一。在统一王国分裂为以色列(在北)和犹大(在南)两个不同的王国,以及以色列王国落入亚述人之手后,犹大王国成为以色列人身份认同的中心。当巴比伦人摧毁第一圣殿并流放大部分犹大人时,这些人被称为 "Yehudim "或 "犹太人"。

公元 70 年,罗马人摧毁了第二圣殿,犹太人随之流散,犹太人的身份认同更加以宗教和文化为中心,而不是以特定的领土或政治主权为中心。因此,"犹太人 "一词成为宗教和文化归属的同义词,而不仅仅是种族或民族归属。领土的丧失和政治的变迁无疑在这一演变中起到了一定的作用,但从 "希伯来人 "到 "犹太人 "的转变也反映了该民族在理解和自我认同方面的内在演变。因此,"犹太人 "一词包含了宗教、文化和种族认同,超越了地理和政治界限。

世界各地的犹太语言和文化[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

最初来自中欧和东欧的阿什肯纳兹犹太人发展了独特的语言和文化。他们的语言意第绪语就是这种独特文化的杰出代表。意第绪语是一种日耳曼语,融合了希伯来语和斯拉夫语的元素,反映了阿什肯纳兹犹太人的历史和经历。这种语言不仅是日常交流的工具,也是阿什肯纳兹犹太人文学、戏剧和诗歌的重要载体。另一方面,主要来自伊比利亚半岛(西班牙和葡萄牙)的塞法尔迪犹太人发展了另一种混合语言,即拉迪诺语或犹太西班牙语。拉迪诺语与意第绪语类似,融合了西班牙语、希伯来语以及土耳其语和阿拉伯语等其他语言,反映了 1492 年塞法迪犹太人被逐出西班牙后的迁徙和交往。

在宗教习俗方面,犹太教多种多样。正统派严格遵守犹太律法和传统,而改革派或自由派(又称进步派或温和派)则倾向于采用更为灵活的解释和做法。此外,还有保守主义和重建主义运动,它们在坚持传统和适应当代现实之间寻求平衡。这种多样性反映了犹太教在保持其特性和基本价值观的同时不断发展和适应的能力。世界各地不同的犹太社区,无论是阿什肯纳兹、塞法尔迪还是其他血统,都为丰富多彩的犹太文化和传统做出了贡献,每个社区都带来了自己独特的观点和经验。

基督教的起源和分支==[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

基督教在罗马帝国的扩展[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

基督教以拿撒勒人耶稣为中心,基督徒承认他是弥赛亚(基督)和上帝之子。他的出生、生活、教导、死亡和复活是基督教信仰的核心。

根据《新约圣经》,耶稣出生在犹太的一个小镇伯利恒。马太福音》和《路加福音》记述了耶稣出生的经过,其中提到耶稣的母亲马利亚是童贞女,天使宣布耶稣降生是一件非常重要的事情。耶稣一生的大部分时间都在加利利地区度过,他宣讲爱、怜悯和悔改的信息,呼吁人们进行精神重建并与上帝建立个人关系。根据福音书的记载,他聚集了一批门徒,并创造了各种奇迹。

他在耶路撒冷被钉死在十字架上是基督教的核心时刻。基督徒相信,耶稣通过他的死,为宽恕人类的罪孽做出了终极牺牲,而他三天后的复活则带来了救赎和永生的应许。每年的基督教复活节都会纪念这一事件。基督教始于公元 1 世纪的犹太教运动,但很快就传播到了罗马帝国内外的其他人群,主要是非犹太教人群。耶稣的形象及其教义对人类历史产生了深远的影响,不仅塑造了基督教,还塑造了西方和世界文明的许多方面。

基督教的合法化和制度化[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

君士坦丁一世皇帝于公元 313 年颁布《米兰敕令》,使基督教在罗马帝国合法化,结束了官方的迫害。后来,在公元 380 年皇帝狄奥多西一世的统治下,基督教通过《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》成为罗马帝国的官方宗教。帝国的这一承认深刻地改变了基督教,使其得以传播并影响到罗马社会的方方面面。然而,基督教与帝国权力结构的融合也在基督教团体内部造成了紧张和分歧。一些基督教团体试图与官方教会和帝国保持距离,他们或是因为神学上的分歧,或是为了回应他们所认为的信仰的腐败或政治化。这些团体通常被官方教会称为教派或异端,他们试图保留一种他们认为更真实或更忠于耶稣和使徒们最初教义的基督教形式。

这些分歧导致了基督教内部的各种分裂和运动,其中一些持续了几个世纪。神学争论(如三位一体的性质或耶稣的神性与人性之间的关系)、文化和语言差异以及帝国内部的政治冲突加剧了这些分歧。因此,基督教融入罗马帝国的结构产生了复杂的影响:它使宗教得到了前所未有的扩展和制度化,但同时也播下了内部分裂的种子,这些分裂将在随后的几个世纪中继续影响基督教的历史。

关于耶稣本质的争论是基督教历史上最伟大、最重要的争论之一。这个神学问题涉及耶稣的神性与人性之间的关系,是许多争论的核心,并导致了早期教会的几次大公会议。主要问题是耶稣如何既是完全的神,又是完全的人。这个问题在公元 325 年的尼西亚大公会议上首次得到了重要解决,三位一体的教义在此会议上开始形成。该会议产生的《尼西亚信经》确认耶稣与天父 "同质"(homoousios),从而确立了耶稣的完全神性。然而,这一声明并没有结束争论。在随后的几个世纪里,出现了不同的思想流派。其中最有影响力的两个派别是阿里乌派和景教派,阿里乌派认为耶稣虽然是神,但与天父不是同一物质,因此低于天父;景教派则认为耶稣的神性和人性是分开和不同的。

这些争论在公元 451 年的卡尔西顿大公会议上达到高潮,最终形成了所谓的基督 "双重性":人们承认耶稣既具有完全的神性,又具有完全的人性,两种本性合而为一,没有混合、混淆或分离。这一教义被称为卡尔西基督论。这场关于耶稣本质的争论不仅仅是一个抽象的神学问题,它在罗马帝国内外产生了重大的政治、社会和文化影响。对这些问题的分歧导致了教会内部的分裂,甚至引发了冲突和迫害。各个基督教团体应对这些问题的方式极大地影响了基督教在随后几个世纪的演变。

尼西亚会议与基督教教义的形成[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

公元 325 年召开的尼西亚会议是基督教历史上的关键时刻,原因有几个。这是第一次大公会议,来自罗马帝国各地的主教聚集一堂,就核心神学问题进行辩论并做出决定。阿里乌斯是一位来自亚历山大的牧师,他主张耶稣与父神不是同一物质,而是上帝创造的、比他低等的受造物。尼西亚大公会议摒弃了阿里乌主义,确认耶稣与天父 "同质"(具有相同的物质),从而肯定了耶稣的完全神性。这一决定被编入《尼西亚信经》,成为基督教信仰的基本声明。

然而,尼西亚信经的决定并没有解决所有的争议。它导致形成了不同的解释和教会,特别是在东方教会和西方教会之间。这些分歧不仅与神学问题有关,也与语言、文化和政治问题有关。例如,雅各派遵循雅各-巴拉戴的教义,与叙利亚东正教会有联系。他们拒绝接受卡尔西顿大公会议(公元 451 年)的决定,卡尔西顿大公会议进一步阐述了基督的本质,确认他具有神性和人性,合二为一。雅各派和其他团体,如景教和基督一性一派,形成了各自不同的教会团体,往往与占统治地位的帝国和教会当局所确立的教义对立。

基督教内部的这些分歧和争论极大地影响了该宗教的演变,导致世界各地基督教传统的复杂拼接。这些不同的团体保持着各自的神学诠释、礼仪实践和组织结构,在过去的几个世纪里,为基督教丰富多彩、有时甚至相互冲突的多样性做出了贡献。

卡尔西会议与戴奥菲斯派基督论[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

公元 451 年召开的卡尔西顿大公会议是基督教历史上的一件大事,因为它正面解决了基督本质这一复杂问题。大公会议通常被视为基督教会几个世纪以来基督论争论的高潮。卡尔西顿大公会议的决定确立了耶稣基督具有两种不同的本性--神性和人性--合而为一(hypostasis)。这种说法被称为 "基督二性说"(Dyophysite Christology)。根据这一教义,基督的两个本体共存,没有混淆、没有改变、没有分裂、也没有分离。这意味着,虽然基督既是完全的神,也是完全的人,但他的两种本性并不混合,从而保留了他完全的神性和完全的人性。

这次大公会议对于确立为大多数基督徒所接受的正统教义至关重要,但也导致了重大分歧。一些教会,特别是一些东方教会,拒绝接受卡尔西顿会议的决定。这些教会通常被称为 "非卡尔西顿教会 "或 "前卡尔西顿教会",包括埃及的科普特教会、埃塞俄比亚东正教会、亚美尼亚使徒教会等。这些团体坚持自己对基督本质的理解,通常侧重于基督神性与人性的统一。因此,卡尔西顿大公会议标志着基督教历史上的一个关键时刻,它为许多基督教会确立了基本教义,同时也与其他不接受其结论的教会产生了持久的分裂。时至今日,这些基督论分歧仍是基督教不同传统之间分歧的一个重要方面。

神学分歧的政治和文化影响[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

1054 年的大分裂标志着东方教会(即后来的东正教会)与西方教会(即罗马天主教会)的分离,是基督教的一个历史转折点。这次分裂并非孤立事件,而是基督教两个分支之间长期分歧不断扩大的结果。这些分歧的核心是深刻的神学和教会争端。其中一个主要争论点涉及教皇权威问题。罗马教会以教皇利奥九世(Leo IX)等人为代表,声称拥有对所有基督教会的最高权威,而东方教会则对这一地位提出了质疑。君士坦丁堡牧首会在迈克尔-塞拉勒斯(Michael Cerularus)等领导人的领导下,反对中央集权的思想,主张采取更加合议的方式。

另一个关键争议点是西方教会在《尼西亚信经》中加入了 "Filioque"。这一改动指出圣灵从圣父 "和圣子 "而来,东方教会认为这是对第一次大公会议确立的教义的不可接受的改动。这场争论反映了对三位一体和上帝本质理解上更广泛的分歧。除了神学问题,文化和政治差异也发挥了作用。西罗马帝国的崩溃和拜占庭帝国的崛起在两个地区之间造成了鸿沟。语言上的差异,即拉丁语在西方占主导地位而希腊语在东方占主导地位,也造成了日益扩大的文化鸿沟。

标志着这些紧张关系达到顶峰的象征性事件是 1054 年的互相驱逐。教皇利奥九世派往君士坦丁堡的使节将牧首迈克尔-塞鲁拉鲁斯逐出教会,后者则将使节逐出教会。虽然开除教籍是最引人注目的举动,但它代表了一系列长期分歧和误解的顶点。大分裂对基督教后来的发展产生了深远的影响,巩固了罗马天主教会和东正教会之间的分裂。这一分裂植根于神学、文化和政治分歧,不仅影响了宗教历史,也影响了欧洲及周边地区的政治和文化轨迹。近代以来,人们一直在努力实现对话与和解,但 1054 年分裂所造成的分裂仍在影响着世界的宗教和文化格局。

新教与宗教改革:基督教的变革[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

16 世纪,基督教因新教的出现而发生了深刻的变化,新教运动对罗马天主教会的教义和实践提出了挑战,并导致了新教改革。这一时期标志着欧洲宗教史上的一个重要转折点,并对全球产生了持久的影响。新教的起源通常归功于德国修道士兼神学家马丁-路德。1517 年,路德在维滕贝格教堂的门上张贴了他的 "95 条论纲",批评天主教会的各个方面,包括出售赎罪券。由于印刷术的发明,他的文章迅速流传开来,引起了对教会某些做法日益不满的公众的共鸣。

路德挑战了天主教会的主要教义,如教皇的权威和行为对救赎的效力,转而主张唯独因信称义("sola fide")和唯独圣经的权威("sola scriptura")。这些思想对天主教会的基础提出了挑战,并在整个欧洲发起了一系列宗教改革。新教改革的其他关键人物包括日内瓦的让-加尔文和苏黎世的胡德里赫-茨温利,前者发展了被称为 "加尔文主义 "的神学体系。每一位改革者都帮助形成了新教的不同派别,进而衍生出众多教派,包括路德宗、改革宗、长老会和再洗礼派等。

宗教改革不仅在宗教领域,而且在政治、文化和社会领域都带来了深刻的变化。它导致了整个欧洲的宗教战争、政治权力结构的变化,并对教育、文学和艺术产生了影响。新教改革还为基督教在全世界的扩张铺平了道路,特别是通过在欧洲殖民地的传教活动。因此,16 世纪是基督教发生重大变革的时期,新教挑战了教会的既有结构,重新定义了许多基督徒理解其信仰和信奉其宗教的方式。

在基督教复杂的历史中,一些东方教会曾一度与罗马天主教会建立了联系,形成了融合东西方传统元素的基督教团体。这些教会通常被称为东方天主教会或联合教会,它们保留了自己的礼仪仪式和东方文化遗产,同时接受教皇的权威和罗马天主教的某些教义。这种与罗马联合的运动有多种动机,包括政治考虑、面对外部压力寻求支持的愿望以及神学和教会利益。一个显著的例子是 1596 年的布列斯特联盟,当时波兰-立陶宛东正教会的一些主教同意与罗马天主教会合并,成立了乌克兰希腊天主教会。同样,黎巴嫩的马龙派天主教会也长期与罗马保持共融,同时保留了其东方礼仪和精神传统。

就几个世纪以来的基督徒人口统计而言,在某些地区,特别是中东和北非,基督徒占总人口的比例确实随着时间的推移而下降。这种下降可归因于各种因素,如改宗、移民、政治变革以及社会和经济压力。例如,穆斯林征服中东后,许多基督徒逐渐接受了伊斯兰语言和宗教,尽管该地区仍有基督教社区存在。然而,在全球范围内,基督教得到了长足的发展,这主要是 16 世纪至 20 世纪传教运动和欧洲殖民化的结果。今天,基督教仍然是世界主要宗教之一,在各大洲都有大量存在。值得注意的是,尽管面临各种挑战和变化,基督教团体仍在继续维护他们的信仰和传统,而且往往是在非常不同的文化和政治背景下。基督教有能力在保持其核心信仰的同时进行适应和变革,这是其历史的一个显著方面。

伊斯兰教的原则和潮流[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

穆罕默德伊斯兰教的先知和基础[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

伊斯兰教以穆罕默德为中心,穆斯林认为他是真主派来指导人类的最后一位先知。穆罕默德的生平和教义在伊斯兰教中占有重要地位,并对该宗教的发展产生了深远影响。穆罕默德于公元 570 年出生于麦加,在阿拉伯半岛多神教习俗和部落社会制度占主导地位的环境中长大。他年轻时是孤儿,生活贫困,但他后来在商人的工作中赢得了信任和正直的声誉。这些经历使他对社会、经济和宗教的方方面面有了独特的见解。根据伊斯兰传统,穆罕默德在 40 岁时开始通过天使加百列接受真主(阿拉伯语中的真主)的启示。这些启示持续了 23 年,形成了伊斯兰教的圣典《古兰经》。

穆罕默德的信息强调严格的一神论(Tawhid)、社会正义、道德责任和真主面前人人平等。他意识到麦加社会的不平等和不公正,他的教义呼吁彻底改变当时的社会和宗教结构。然而,他的传教遭到了麦加领导人的强烈反对,主要是因为他的教义对经济和社会产生了影响,挑战了麦加的权力结构和宗教习俗。这些紧张局势最终导致穆罕默德和他的第一批追随者于公元 622 年从麦加迁徙到麦地那,这一事件意义重大,标志着伊斯兰历法的开始。

黑吉拉:伊斯兰历史的转折点[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

在麦地那,穆罕默德建立了一个以伊斯兰原则为基础的社区(乌玛),他在那里扮演着精神、政治和军事领袖的角色。在随后的岁月里,伊斯兰教迅速扩展到整个阿拉伯半岛,各个阿拉伯部落也在新信仰的旗帜下得到巩固。公元 632 年穆罕默德去世后,他的教诲和榜样继续指引着穆斯林。伊斯兰教迅速传播到阿拉伯半岛以外,成为世界上一支重要的宗教、文化和政治力量。穆罕默德的生平和教诲仍然是穆斯林信仰的核心,深刻影响着世界各地穆斯林的信仰、习俗和文化。

穆罕默德于公元 632 年去世后的时期在伊斯兰教历史上至关重要,因为它为伊斯兰教的政治结构和内部分裂奠定了基础。赫吉拉,即穆罕默德于 622 年从麦加迁徙到麦地那,是伊斯兰教的奠基时刻,标志着伊斯兰历法的开始,以及在他的领导下建立了一个统一的穆斯林社区。

632 年穆罕默德去世时,他没有明确指定一位继承人来领导他,这就产生了一个关键问题:谁应该领导穆斯林团体(Ummah)?这个问题产生了伊斯兰教的两大分支:逊尼派和什叶派:逊尼派和什叶派。代表大多数穆斯林的逊尼派认为,穆罕默德的继承人应从穆斯林群体成员中选出,并遵循 "逊奈"(基于穆罕默德教义和实践的传统)。根据这一传统选出的第一位哈里发是穆罕默德的亲密伙伴和岳父艾布-伯克尔。什叶派则认为,穆斯林社区的领导权应保留在穆罕默德的家族中。他们认为,穆罕默德的堂兄兼女婿阿里是他指定的继承人。什叶派用 "Ahl al-Bayt"(家族的人)来指穆罕默德的家族及其后裔。

公元 632 年至 661 年被称为 "正统哈里发 "或 "拉希敦 "时期,艾布-伯克尔的继任者欧麦尔和奥斯曼先后成为哈里发。每一位哈里发都是从穆罕默德的同伴中通过协商一致或议会选举产生的。然而,在继承问题上的紧张和分歧导致了分裂和冲突,最终导致了 "菲特纳"(Fitna)战争,一系列内战深深影响了穆斯林社区。这一时期为穆斯林帝国的政治结构--哈里发奠定了基础,并在几个世纪中不断发展和变化。逊尼派和什叶派之间最初的分歧虽然在开始时主要是神学和政治分歧,但却极大地影响了穆斯林世界的历史、政治和文化。

内哈文德战役和萨珊帝国的覆灭[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

内哈文德战役发生在公元 641-642 年左右,是伊斯兰教扩张和萨珊帝国灭亡的一个重要历史里程碑。这场军事冲突发生在现在的伊朗西北部,崛起的阿拉伯穆斯林军队与萨珊帝国的军队对峙,萨珊帝国曾是一个强大的帝国,但因长期冲突和内部动乱而衰弱。在这场战役之前,亚兹德加德三世统治下的萨珊帝国已经在穆斯林的征服下损失惨重。内哈文德战役通常被视为对萨珊抵抗的最后一击。穆斯林在这场战役中取得了决定性的胜利:它不仅标志着萨珊帝国有组织抵抗的结束,还为伊斯兰教在该地区的迅速扩张铺平了道路。这场被穆斯林称为 "胜利中的胜利 "的胜利对该地区的历史进程产生了深远的影响。随着萨珊军队的失败,亚兹德加德三世被迫向东逃亡,拼命寻找盟友来重新征服他的帝国。然而,他的努力毫无结果,曾经是拜占庭帝国对手的萨珊帝国从历史上消失了。

这场战役的影响远远超出了战场。它标志着波斯文化和宗教重大变革的开始。随着穆斯林的征服,该地区开始逐渐从拜火教向伊斯兰教转变。这种转变不仅限于宗教方面,还带来了语言和文化方面的重大变化。阿拉伯语成为行政和学术文化的主要语言,尽管波斯语和波斯文化在该地区仍发挥着重要作用。因此,奈哈文德战役说明了军事征服如何对一个地区的文化和宗教特性产生持久的影响。通过将萨珊帝国的波斯转变为伊斯兰世界的重要领土,这场战役不仅重绘了该地区的政治版图,还为之后的文化和宗教发展奠定了基础。

什叶派及其对伊斯兰领导权的看法[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

什叶派的字面意思是 "阿里的追随者",他们认为先知穆罕默德的堂弟兼女婿阿里是穆罕默德的合法继承人。他们认为阿里及其后裔伊玛目是穆斯林社会真正的精神和政治领袖。什叶派的基础是阿里血统的神圣合法性,其追随者特别注重伊斯兰教的精神和神秘方面。另一方面,逊尼派代表了穆斯林的大多数,他们认为哈里发应根据其能力和虔诚程度选举产生。叙利亚总督穆阿维亚在 657 年的锡芬战役中与阿里发生冲突,成为逊尼派历史上的关键人物。这场战役以僵局告终,并导致了有争议的仲裁,是一个决定性的时刻,加剧了穆斯林内部的分裂。阿里在锡芬接受仲裁与他的一些支持者产生了分歧,他们认为阿里接受仲裁就是背叛了伊斯兰教的原则。这些持不同政见者后来被称为哈里吉派(Kharijites),他们主张对伊斯兰教进行严格的解释,有时甚至是极端的解释,他们同时反对阿里和穆阿维亚。

阿里于 661 年遇刺身亡(通常被认为是哈里吉派所为),之后穆阿维亚建立了倭马亚哈里发王朝,标志着一个世袭继承王朝的开始。这一时期,阿里的支持者与倭马亚统治者之间的矛盾和冲突持续不断。穆阿维亚的儿子亚兹德在什叶派传统中尤其不受欢迎,因为他在 680 年的卡尔巴拉战役中参与了对阿里之子侯赛因的屠杀。这一悲惨事件是什叶派阿舒拉节纪念活动的核心,象征着反对不公正和压迫的斗争。伊斯兰教内部早期的分裂和冲突为教义、政治和文化差异奠定了基础,这些差异至今仍是逊尼派、什叶派和哈里吉派之间关系的特点。这些事件不仅塑造了穆斯林世界的历史,还对信奉伊斯兰教地区的政治、社会和文化产生了深远影响。

卡尔巴拉战役及其对什叶派的影响[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

公元 680 年在伊拉克发生的卡尔巴拉战役是伊斯兰教历史上最悲惨、最重大的事件之一,尤其是对什叶派而言。这场战役使穆罕默德的孙子、什叶派的核心人物侯赛因-伊本-阿里(Husayn ibn Ali)与倭马亚哈里发雅兹德一世(Yazid I)的军队对决。侯赛因与一小群支持者和家庭成员前往卡尔巴拉,挑战倭马亚哈里发的合法性,什叶派认为倭马亚哈里发是非法和腐败的。雅兹德的优势兵力包围了侯赛因及其支持者。尽管有人提出投降,但侯赛因还是选择了抵抗,导致了一场不平等的战斗,他和几乎所有的同伴都在战斗中丧生。侯赛因在卡尔巴拉之死已成为什叶派传统中反抗压迫和为正义而牺牲的有力象征。每年的穆哈拉姆月,尤其是阿舒拉节,世界各地的什叶派教徒都会举行哀悼和纪念仪式,缅怀他的殉难。

MOMCENC - Califat Omeyyade.png

这幅历史地图展示了公元 750 年前后的地中海世界,突出显示了倭马亚哈里发王朝鼎盛时期的领土范围,以及当时的其他主要政治实体。

绿色区域代表倭马亚哈里发国,东起伊比利亚半岛(安达卢西亚),西至印度边境,包括马格里布、埃及、阿拉伯半岛和中东广大地区。倭马亚哈里发王朝以大马士革为首都,在 7 世纪开始的穆斯林征服之后迅速扩张。科尔多瓦、塞维利亚和托莱多等城市显示了他们在欧洲的势力范围,而北非的凯鲁万和埃及的福斯塔特等城市则突出了他们在非洲的存在。红色代表矮子佩潘统治时期的法兰克王国。法兰克人在夏尔-马泰尔的领导下,在 732 年的普瓦捷战役中阻止了倭马亚王朝向欧洲的推进,这次战役通常被认为是遏制伊斯兰教在西欧扩张的决定性时刻。蓝色表示拜占庭帝国,又称东罗马帝国,其首都设在君士坦丁堡(今伊斯坦布尔)。尽管领土被阿拉伯人夺去,但拜占庭帝国仍设法抵抗并守住了安纳托利亚、巴尔干和意大利部分地区等重要地区,地图上的锡拉库扎和拉文纳就是证明。伦巴第王国虽然没有在地图上标出,但却出现在意大利北部地区,它是这一时期的另一个政治实体,最终被法兰克人征服。最后,浅棕色的一小块区域代表阿斯图里亚斯王国,位于伊比利亚半岛西北部。这是穆斯林开始征服西班牙后建立的第一批基督教王国之一,被认为是后来在重建征服期间重新征服穆斯林控制区的基督教王国的前身。因此,这幅地图反映了一个重大的地缘政治转型时期,王国和帝国之间的权力交换充满活力,并代表了欧洲和中东深受基督徒和穆斯林之间冲突和交流影响时期的领土划分。

倭马亚哈里发王朝的兴衰[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

倭马亚王朝由穆阿维亚在阿里死后建立,建都于大马士革,统治着从西班牙到印度的庞大帝国。在倭马亚王朝的统治下,穆斯林帝国经历了相当大的扩张和一定程度的统一,但其统治期间内部关系紧张,尤其是与阿里的追随者和什叶派社区的关系。倭马亚王朝的哈里发统治最终在公元 750 年被阿巴斯革命推翻。阿拔斯王朝将帝国首都迁往巴格达,建立了一个新王朝,标志着伊斯兰历史的转折点,文化、科学和政治复兴。倭马亚王朝的灭亡也标志着逊尼派和什叶派的分裂进入了一个新阶段,什叶派继续发展成为一个拥有自己宗教教义和习俗的独特群体。

MOMCENC - Califat Abbasside.png

所提供的历史地图代表了公元 880 年左右的欧洲和中东地区,展示了这一时期复杂的地缘政治,王国、帝国和王朝星罗棋布。绿色区域代表衰落的阿拔斯哈里发王朝,它继承了倭马亚王朝,首都是巴格达。这个实体曾享有科学、文化和经济发展的黄金时代,但在此期间,由于内部叛乱和新兴大国的压力,其政治影响力开始减弱。西班牙境内有几个王国,包括莱昂、纳瓦拉和阿拉贡,此外还有仍在穆斯林控制下的领土,如科尔多瓦倭马亚酋长国统治的领土,如绿色格子所示。西班牙的这些穆斯林地区被称为安达卢西亚,是穆斯林、基督徒和犹太人共存的学习和文化中心。红白条纹区域表示以罗马为中心的教皇国,象征教皇在意大利半岛的权力。橙色和黄色区域代表法兰克王国,分为西法兰克和东法兰克。此时,曾经在查理曼统治下统一的卡洛林帝国已经四分五裂,形成了后来的法国和德意志。以君士坦丁堡为首都的拜占庭帝国(浅蓝色)虽然因内部斗争和外部冲突而衰弱,但仍保持着在地中海东部的存在,包括安纳托利亚、巴尔干和意大利南部部分地区。在北非,阿格拉比德王朝、伊德里斯王朝以及鲁斯塔米德王朝(绿条纹)都源于伊斯兰运动的不同派别或分支,他们建立了自治统治,在不同程度上效忠或独立于阿拔斯王朝的哈里发。最后,紫色显示的保加利亚王国代表了这一时期的另一个重要势力,它将影响力扩展到巴尔干地区,有时还挑战拜占庭帝国。这幅地图揭示了这一时期的政治分裂、新势力的崛起、权力下放以及不同宗教和世俗当局之间复杂的互动关系。它描绘了从卡洛林时代到欧洲民族国家开始形成之间的过渡时期,同时也显示了伊斯兰哈里发面对不断上升的内部和外部势力而逐渐衰弱的过程。

阿拔斯王朝的兴衰[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

公元 750 年,倭马亚王朝向阿拔斯王朝的过渡是伊斯兰历史上的一个重要转折点。导致倭马亚王朝灭亡的起义得到了寻求变革的穆斯林的广泛支持,尤其是什叶派和非阿拉伯人(如波斯人),他们认为自己在倭马亚王朝的统治下被边缘化了。阿巴斯王朝声称自己是穆罕默德叔叔阿巴斯-本-阿卜杜勒-穆塔里卜的后裔,随着阿巴斯王朝的崛起,权力中心从大马士革转移到了巴格达。这一时期通常被认为是伊斯兰教的黄金时代,其特点是科学、文化、哲学、医学和法律方面的重大进步。阿巴斯王朝鼓励赞助科学和艺术,吸引了帝国内外的学者、艺术家和思想家。

然而,主要由于十字军东征,阿拔斯王朝在 11 世纪末开始衰落。十字军东征是欧洲基督教列强为夺回对圣地的控制权而发动的战争。虽然十字军东征没有直接推翻阿巴斯王朝,但却消耗了哈里发的资源,加剧了内部分裂,从而削弱了哈里发的势力。与此同时,从 13 世纪中叶开始,蒙古人的入侵对伊斯兰世界构成了更大的威胁。蒙古人在成吉思汗及其继承者等首领的率领下,征服了包括穆斯林地区在内的亚洲大片领土。

对阿巴斯王朝来说,这段危机时期的高潮是 1258 年蒙古人在忽剌古汗的率领下攻占巴格达。这次征服不仅标志着阿拔斯王朝哈里发统治的结束,还导致了大规模的破坏和人员伤亡,结束了伊斯兰文明的黄金时代。到 13 世纪末,伊斯兰世界在西方十字军东征和东方蒙古入侵的夹击下发生了深刻的变化。这些事件不仅改变了伊斯兰教的政治结构,还对其文化、科学和宗教发展产生了持久的影响。

1258 年至 1500 年间,穆斯林世界在十字军东征和蒙古人入侵之间一直非常脆弱。奥斯曼帝国和塞夫维德帝国(1501-1736 年)的建立稳定了局势。

MOMCENC - the gunpowder empires.png

该地图显示了 16 世纪至 18 世纪三大穆斯林帝国的地理分布,由于它们在军事扩张和巩固权力方面创新性地使用了火药,因此常被称为 "火药帝国"。这些帝国是奥斯曼帝国、萨法维帝国和莫卧儿帝国。绿色的奥斯曼帝国以君士坦丁堡(今伊斯坦布尔)为首都,横跨安纳托利亚、中东、北非部分地区和巴尔干半岛,一直延伸到欧洲。这个帝国不仅革命性地使用了火药,还在建筑、行政和文化方面为该地区留下了持久的遗产。橙色区域代表萨非帝国,以波斯(今伊朗)为中心。萨法维王朝的显著特点是将十二进制什叶派确立为帝国的官方宗教,这有助于塑造该地区的宗教特征。萨法维王朝的首都是伊斯法罕,以其辉煌的建筑和作为艺术和商业中心而闻名。紫色的莫卧儿帝国覆盖了印度次大陆的大部分地区。莫卧儿帝国由塔默兰和成吉思汗的后裔巴布尔建立,以其财富、对艺术和建筑(如著名的泰姬陵)的赞助以及在阿克巴等皇帝领导下相对进步和多元化的管理而闻名。这幅地图展示了这些帝国主宰世界政治和贸易的时期,这部分归功于它们的军事进步和经济实力。他们的遗产反映在其统治地区的现代边界、语言、宗教和文化中。火药帝国时期也有重要的文化和科学交流、频繁的领土战争和繁荣的洲际贸易。

1517 年奥斯曼人攻占开罗是伊斯兰历史上的另一个重要里程碑,标志着奥斯曼帝国的扩张及其对哈里发称号的宣称。这一时期标志着奥斯曼帝国开始对穆斯林世界的大部分地区实行霸权,这种霸权将持续几个世纪。在塞利姆一世的统治下,奥斯曼帝国击败了埃及和叙利亚的马穆鲁克苏丹国,将帝国版图扩展到中东、北非和欧洲部分地区。随着帝国的扩张,塞利姆一世获得了哈里发的称号,不仅拥有了政治权力,还对逊尼派穆斯林拥有了宗教权威。哈里发的中心转移到奥斯曼帝国的首都伊斯坦布尔,加强了奥斯曼帝国在伊斯兰世界和国际舞台上的大国地位。然而,到 19 世纪末,奥斯曼帝国走向衰落。面对内部和外部的挑战,包括领土内民族主义的兴起、欧洲列强的竞争和经济问题,帝国开始失去影响力和领土。

尽管衰落,奥斯曼帝国仍保留着哈里发的头衔,直到其被废除。虽然哈里发头衔失去了很多实际的政治意义,但它仍具有象征意义和宗教重要性。许多穆斯林仍将哈里发视为逊尼派的精神领袖,尽管这一地位不再有实质性的政治或军事力量作为后盾。1924 年第一次世界大战后,奥斯曼帝国灭亡,穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克领导下的土耳其共和国废除了哈里发政权,这标志着伊斯兰历史上一个时代的结束。这在逊尼派宗教领袖方面留下了真空,并继续影响着当代穆斯林世界的政治和宗教动态。

哈里发的废除与土耳其的现代化[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

1924 年,土耳其共和国创始人穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克废除了哈里发制度,这是穆斯林世界现代史上的一个决定性时刻。这一决定标志着哈里发制度的正式终结,而哈里发制度是近 13 个世纪以来伊斯兰治理的核心特征。穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克是一位具有远见卓识的改革派领袖,他决心在第一次世界大战后奥斯曼帝国灭亡之后,实现土耳其的现代化和世俗化。作为其激进改革的一部分,他试图将土耳其转变为一个世俗的民族国家,摆脱奥斯曼帝国的结构和意识形态。废除哈里发是这一进程中的关键一步。1924 年 3 月,土耳其国民议会废除了哈里发制度,驱逐了最后一任哈里发阿卜杜勒迈西德二世,标志着伊斯兰教最古老、最具象征意义的制度之一的终结。做出这一决定的动机是阿塔图尔克希望促进土耳其的民族认同,减少伊斯兰教对国家政策的影响。

哈里发的废除对穆斯林世界产生了深远的影响。它给逊尼派伊斯兰教留下了一个宗教领导真空,并引发了对伊斯兰教宗教和政治权威的质疑。世界各地的许多穆斯林都对这一决定感到震惊,并引发了关于伊斯兰教领导权的性质和宗教在现代社会中的作用的辩论。自那以后,尽管哈里发的概念一直在伊斯兰言论中占据重要地位,但没有任何国家或运动成功地以广受认可的方式重建了哈里发国。阿塔图尔克废除哈里发统治仍然是伊斯兰教历史上的一个重要事件,并继续影响着当代穆斯林世界关于伊斯兰教与国家之间关系的讨论。

达伊什伊斯兰国的兴起与衰落[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

2014 年至 2019 年期间,当代伊斯兰教发生了一件大事,阿布-贝克尔-巴格达迪自封为哈里发。伊拉克和叙利亚伊斯兰国(EIIS)(又称达伊什)领导人巴格达迪宣布在其组织控制的伊拉克和叙利亚领土上建立哈里发国。这一宣言于 2014 年 6 月发布,遭到了全球穆斯林社区、宗教领袖和各国政府的广泛反对。达伊什的行动和意识形态被谴责为公然违背伊斯兰教的原则和教义。达伊什的残暴和极端主义,包括其暴力行为、大规模处决和侵犯人权的行为,受到普遍谴责。

达伊什所谓的哈里发国试图根据对伊斯兰法的极端和字面解释建立治理,但遭到了当地和国际社会的反对和敌视。包括许多穆斯林国家在内的国际联盟成立,以打击达伊什,导致其领土逐渐丧失,组织实力大大削弱。2019 年 10 月,阿布-贝克尔-巴格达迪在美国在叙利亚的一次军事行动中被击毙,这是对达伊沙领导层的一次打击,象征着其所谓的哈里发国的有效终结。这一时期凸显了当代穆斯林世界面临的挑战,尤其是在极端主义、治理和伊斯兰身份认同等问题上。巴格达迪试图恢复哈里发的概念,这被视为对伊斯兰原则的歪曲,并对伊斯兰教治理和宗教权威的未来提出了重要问题。

前伊斯兰时期和无知时代:"贾希礼亚"(Jahiliya)[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

伊斯兰教中的 "Jahiliya "概念是理解穆斯林历史和社会观念的一个关键概念。Jahiliya "直译为 "无知时期",指的是 7 世纪先知穆罕默德得到《古兰经》启示之前的阿拉伯前伊斯兰时代。伊斯兰文献通常将这一时期描述为道德和精神的黑暗时期。贾希利耶与多神教、社会不公、道德堕落和部落冲突等被认为与伊斯兰教义不相容的习俗有关。伊斯兰教的教义强调一神论、伦理道德、社会正义以及在对真主的信仰下形成一个团结的群体,因此被视为与 蒙昧时代的传统和习俗彻底决裂。

在当代伊斯兰言论中,Jahiliya 一词有时被用来描述被认为与伊斯兰原则相去甚远的情况或社会,甚至超越了伊斯兰之前的阿拉伯背景。一些穆斯林知识分子和思想家使用 Jahiliya 这一概念来批评他们认为现代社会(包括穆斯林社会本身)的腐败或非伊斯兰的方面。然而,在当代背景下使用 "真主慈悲"(Jahiliya)一词在穆斯林社会中经常引起争议和辩论。对大多数穆斯林来说,"真主至上 "仍然主要是一个历史概念,特指伊斯兰教以前的阿拉伯及其传统。蒙昧时代是伊斯兰教的一个重要概念,因为它不仅象征着历史上的过去,而且还象征着伊 斯兰教试图通过其有关精神、道德和社区的教义来超越的一种存在状态。在空间上,Dar al Islam(伊斯兰教的土地)和 Dar al Harb(战争的土地)。人民之间也有区别:信奉一神教并被邀请信奉伊斯兰教的 "一本教徒"(Al-Kithab)和其他人(消失者)。

非穆斯林在伊斯兰教中的地位:"迪米"[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

在古典伊斯兰教的历史背景下,"迪米 "概念是了解穆斯林社会如何与非穆斯林互动的一个重要概念。迪米人是生活在伊斯兰国家的非穆斯林公民,根据伊斯兰法律享有特殊保护和某些权利,同时也受到某些限制并承担某些义务。根据伊斯兰教法的原则,迪米人主要信奉基督教和犹太教等一神教。他们可以信奉自己的宗教,管理自己的社区事务,并受到穆斯林国家的保护。为了换取这种保护和信奉宗教的权利,迪米人必须缴纳一种名为 "吉兹亚 "的特别税。吉兹亚被视为迪米人服从穆斯林权威的象征,也是他们免服兵役的交换条件,因为穆斯林公民必须服兵役。

这种做法的部分依据是《古兰经》和 "逊奈"(先知穆罕默德的传统)的教义,其中提倡对 "经书之民"(Ahl al-Kitab)的宽容。值得注意的是,这些原则的应用随着时间的推移和地区的不同而有所不同。在某些时期和地区,迪米人享有相当大的自由和宽容,而在其他情况下,他们可能受到更严格的限制和歧视。

随着传统伊斯兰帝国的衰落和现代民族国家的崛起,"迪米 "身份逐渐失去了实际意义。在当代穆斯林世界,公民权和不分宗教的平等权利原则在很大程度上取代了传统的 "迪玛 "制度。然而,历史上的 "迪玛 "概念仍然是学者和思想家们感兴趣和争论的话题,这既是为了了解伊斯兰教的历史,也是为了了解其对当代宗教间关系的影响。

宽容和对待 "圣训之人"[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

伊斯兰教中 "圣书之人"(Ahl al-Kitab)的概念主要指犹太人和基督徒,其核心是宽容,而不是现代意义上的平等。在中世纪的伊斯兰社会中,这种地位是承认和尊重伊斯兰国家内非穆斯林宗教团体存在的一种方式,同时也为他们与穆斯林多数群体的融合和互动建立了一个特定的法律框架。

伊斯兰教法(伊斯兰教法)的原则赋予 "圣书之民 "某些权利,并保护他们作为拥有启示经文的一神教团体。他们可以信奉自己的宗教,保留自己的礼拜场所,并在结婚、离婚和其他个人事务上根据自己的法律接受审判。然而,这种地位并不意味着在当时的政治和社会框架内与穆斯林完全平等。迪米人(生活在穆斯林保护下的非穆斯林)必须缴纳特别税--吉兹亚(jizya),并经常受到某些法律和社会限制。例如,他们在建造新的礼拜场所或公开表达自己的信仰时可能会受到限制。他们还可以免服兵役,而穆斯林必须服兵役。

必须强调的是,这些规则的执行和解释因时代和地区的不同而有很大差异。在某些历史背景下,"圣书之民 "社区在穆斯林统治下蓬勃发展,为社会、文化和经济做出了重大贡献。而在另一些情况下,他们则面临更严厉的限制和歧视。在当代背景下,"圣书之民 "的概念和 "迪米 "的地位已经失去了很大的实际意义,现代穆斯林国家普遍倾向于不分宗教信仰的公民权和平等权利原则。不过,这些历史概念对于了解中世纪伊斯兰社会如何处理宗教多样性和族群间关系仍然非常重要。

差异与共同点:逊尼派与什叶派[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

什叶派传统及其不同解释[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

对于什叶派来说,穆罕默德死后领导权的合法性是基于神的指定原则和先知的家族血统。他们认为,哈里发应由穆罕默德的堂兄兼女婿阿里-本-阿比-塔里卜及其后代伊玛目继承。什叶派认为,这些伊玛目来自阿里和法蒂玛(穆罕默德的女儿)的后裔,由于他们与穆罕默德的血缘关系和神圣的称号,他们拥有独特的精神和世俗权威。这种信仰在什叶派中形成了一种强烈的殉教文化,尤其是因为阿里及其后裔,特别是在卡尔巴拉战役中被杀的侯赛因-伊本-阿里,曾遭受过悲剧和迫害。侯赛因的殉难是什叶派的核心,象征着与不公正和暴政的斗争。

另一方面,伊斯兰教的逊尼派多数不承认什叶派伊玛目世袭的宗教权威。逊尼派认为,哈里发必须从穆斯林群体(乌玛)中通过协商一致或选举产生,不一定是穆罕默德的直系后裔。逊尼派注重 "圣行",即穆罕默德的教义和实践,将其作为宗教权威的来源,反对在真主和信徒之间需要一个特定的中间权威的观点。对他们来说,宗教学者(ulama)和法学家(fuqaha)在解释《古兰经》和 "圣行 "方面发挥着重要作用,但他们并不被视为具有神性或无懈可击的权威。什叶派和逊尼派在领导权、权威和宗教解释方面的这些差异是伊斯兰教两大分支在神学、礼仪和政治方面存在许多分歧的根源。

什叶派又分为几个分支,每个分支对什叶派认为的第一任伊玛目阿里-本-阿比-塔里卜之后的伊玛目继承都有自己的解释。扎伊德派主要分布在也门,他们承认侯赛因的孙子扎伊德-本-阿里为第五任伊玛目。他们与其他什叶派的不同之处在于,他们不要求伊玛目必须是侯赛因长子的直系后裔。扎伊德派在也门历史上扮演着重要角色,并继续影响着也门的政治。伊斯玛仪派则追随伊玛目世系,直至第七世伊斯玛仪-本-贾法尔,他们的名字就来源于伊斯玛仪。他们在第六任伊玛目贾法尔-萨迪克之后脱离了二元论,承认伊斯梅尔为下一任合法伊玛目。伊斯玛仪派以其对《古兰经》的深奥解释和丰富的知识传统而著称。这一分支在中世纪产生了刺客组织,如今的代表人物是阿迦汗。

十二伊玛目什叶派在今天的什叶派中占多数,承认十二伊玛目的继承,其中最后一位是穆罕默德-迈赫迪(Muhammad al-Mahdi)。十二伊玛目生于 868 年,根据十二门徒教派的信仰,他于 941 年进入隐世状态。十二伊玛目信仰认为,他将在末世以马赫迪的身份回归,建立正义与和平。对隐藏伊玛目的信仰是十二使徒神学的核心要素,在什叶派的末世论期望中扮演着重要角色。因此,什叶派及其各个分支代表了伊斯兰教中丰富多样的传统,其特点是特别强调伊玛目的形象、精神信仰和对马赫迪回归的期望。

逊尼派伊斯兰教:法律和神学流派[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

在逊尼派伊斯兰教中,法学和神学解释的多样性产生了多个思想流派,即所谓的 "马德希布"(Madhahib)。这些学派并不代表教派划分,而是解释伊斯兰教法(Sharia)的不同方法论。四大派别是哈乃斐派、马勒基派、沙菲派和汉巴派。

哈乃斐派由阿布-哈尼法于 8 世纪创立,以其理性的法理学方法而闻名。阿布-哈尼法是伊斯兰法学(fiqh)领域的先驱,他强调理性和个人观点(ra'y)在解释宗教经文中的重要性。该学派在南亚、土耳其和巴尔干地区尤其具有影响力。马利克派由马利克-伊本-阿纳斯(Malik ibn Anas)创立,强调麦地那社区的习俗和传统,麦地那被认为是伊斯兰社会的典范,因为先知穆罕默德就是在那里度过了他生命的最后几年。该学派主要分布在北非和撒哈拉以南非洲的部分地区,其特点是坚持圣训,即先知的行为和言论的记载。沙菲派的创始人沙菲(Al-Shafii)于 9 世纪初引入了一套将传统(圣训)、类比(qiyas)和共识(ijma)相结合的严格体系。他的学说对伊斯兰法学的编纂起到了至关重要的作用。该学派在埃及、东南亚和东非部分地区广为流传。最后,由艾哈迈德-伊本-罕百里(Ahmad ibn Hanbal)开创的罕百里学派被认为是四大学派中最保守的。伊本-罕百里是圣训作为伊斯兰教法主要来源的积极捍卫者,反对在解释圣典时使用人类理性。他的学派在沙特阿拉伯和海湾国家具有显著影响。

这些法律流派反映了逊尼派伊斯兰思想的多样性和丰富性。几个世纪以来,它们帮助塑造了穆斯林理解和实践其信仰的方式。虽然这些学派在方法论和法学结论方面存在差异,但它们相互尊重,都被公认为是逊尼派世界对伊斯兰法的有效解释。这种多样性反映了伊斯兰教能够适应不同的文化和历史背景,同时保持信仰和实践框架的一致性。

中东地区拥有丰富的文化和宗教多样性,是多个宗教团体的家园,这些团体虽然与什叶派伊斯兰教同根同源,但却形成了独特的信仰和习俗。这些团体通常被称为融合派或异端派,包括叙利亚的阿拉维派、伊朗和安纳托利亚的齐齐尔巴什派、主要分布在黎巴嫩、叙利亚和以色列的德鲁兹派以及土耳其的阿列维派。

阿拉维派主要集中在叙利亚,由多德西曼什叶派演变而来,并融入了诺斯替主义、基督教和其他传统的元素。他们崇敬阿里是神的化身,其神学的其他方面也使他们有别于伊斯兰教的主要流派。这种对阿里的特殊信仰往往是与传统逊尼派和什叶派社区关系紧张的根源。齐齐尔巴什人最初来自安纳托利亚和伊朗,在伊朗萨法维帝国的建立过程中发挥了关键作用,他们信奉的什叶派崇拜萨法维王室。Qizilbash "一词在历史上曾被用来指代土耳其的各种什叶派团体,其特点是忠于萨法维王朝。德鲁兹人在黎巴嫩、叙利亚和以色列都有显著的存在,他们是在 11 世纪从伊斯玛仪什叶派中产生的。他们的信仰包含转世信仰和其他独特的教义,并实行一定程度的宗教保密。德鲁兹教徒不寻求改变他人的信仰,而是专注于自己的社区。在土耳其,阿列维人是一个独特的群体,融合了什叶派、苏菲派和前伊斯兰安纳托利亚传统的元素。他们重视爱、宽容和精神信仰,在崇拜仪式和信仰方面与正统的逊尼派和什叶派习俗不同。

这些社区以其独特的习俗和神学解释,展示了中东丰富的宗教马赛克。他们的传统往往以信仰和习俗的融合为特征,反映了该地区的历史、文化和宗教影响。尽管有时正统伊斯兰教派对这些社区持怀疑或敌视态度,但它们在各自国家的社会和文化结构中继续发挥着重要作用,证明了中东宗教景观的多样性和复杂性。

附录[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

参考资料[modifier | modifier le wikicode]