中东地区的语言、宗教和文化

根据 Yilmaz Özcan 的课程改编。

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当代中东：国家、民族和社区

中东的概念 ● 中东地区的语言、宗教和文化 ● 中东地区的帝国和国家 ● 中东地区的政治和宗教潮流

中东地区是古代文明的摇篮和历史贸易路线的交汇点，具有显著的语言、宗教和文化多样性。这种多样性是由无数民族、帝国和运动所塑造的丰富而复杂的历史所产生的。

在语言方面，中东地区的语言杂乱无章，阿拉伯语在埃及和沙特阿拉伯等国占主导地位。波斯语或波斯语是伊朗的主要语言，反映了波斯帝国的传统，而土耳其的官方语言土耳其语则见证了奥斯曼帝国的影响。希伯来语是一种祖传语言，随着 1948 年以色列国的建立，希伯来语经历了一次独特的复活，而库尔德语则在从伊拉克北部到土耳其东南部的多个地区使用。宗教方面，伊斯兰教占主导地位，有逊尼派和什叶派等分支。公元 634 年至 644 年在位的哈里发奥马尔和先知穆罕默德的女婿阿里等历史人物体现了这些分支的雏形。基督教从其起源起就一直存在，尽管政治和社会发生了变化，但埃及的科普特人等群体却一直存在。在以色列，犹太教是核心，以色列国的主要创建者大卫-本-古里安等历史人物就是例证。

中东文化深受这些语言和宗教多样性的影响，在艺术、音乐和烹饪方面有着丰富的表现形式。例如，具有复杂几何图案的伊斯兰艺术反映了宗教对具象表现的禁止。由乌姆-卡尔苏姆（Oum Kalthoum）等代表人物演奏的阿拉伯古典音乐，对地区文化的影响远远超出了语言边界。斋月和波斯诺鲁孜节等节日是宗教和文化传统交织形成独特习俗的例证。

中东的语言多样性

中东的语言多样性是其最显著的特征之一，三大语系的存在就说明了这一点：乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系、印欧语系和闪米特语系。

中东语言全景

乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系包括在亚洲大部分地区和东欧部分地区使用的语言。在中东地区，该语系主要以土耳其的官方语言土耳其语为代表，土耳其语见证了突厥民族的扩张和奥斯曼帝国在该地区的历史影响。其他语言，如阿塞拜疆和伊朗某些社区使用的阿塞拜疆语，也属于这一语系。印欧语系是世界上最大和最多样化的语系之一，包括波斯语、库尔德语和亚美尼亚语。波斯语是古代波斯帝国和现代伊朗的语言，具有重要的历史和文化意义。库尔德语是分布在伊拉克、伊朗、叙利亚和土耳其的库尔德人使用的语言，亚美尼亚语是亚美尼亚和亚美尼亚人散居地使用的语言，这些语言为我们提供了丰富的语言资源。最后，闪米特语系对中东地区至关重要。阿拉伯语是《古兰经》中的语言，也是许多阿拉伯国家的通用语言，是这个语系中最普遍的语言。希伯来语是一种古老的语言，随着以色列国的建立，希伯来语和其他语言如阿拉米 语和亚述语在现代得到了复兴，尽管这些语言的使用范围较小，但却具有重要的历史和文 化意义。

这幅彩色地图显示了中东地区使用的语言，并说明了这些语言主要使用地区的人口密度。它按语系和有关地区的人口密度对语言进行了区分。

阿拉伯语的扩张和影响

黄色区域代表阿拉伯语占主导地位的人口稠密地区。这包括埃及、沙特阿拉伯、也门、约旦、黎巴嫩等国家。阿拉伯语是闪米特语族的主要语言，在整个阿拉伯半岛及其他地区通用。该地图显示，阿拉伯语在黄色区域占主导地位，表明这些区域人口密度较高。阿拉伯语属于闪米特语族，不仅是一种官方语言，也是中东地区文化和宗教特征的组成部分。

阿拉伯语传播到阿拉伯半岛以外的地区，特别是通过 7 世纪以来的伊斯兰征服，成为该地区最有影响力的语言之一。现在，中东和北非的许多国家都使用阿拉伯语。在埃及等国家，阿拉伯语的文明可以追溯到几千年前，它已经取代了古埃及语等古老语言，成为大多数人的语言。沙特阿拉伯是伊斯兰教的摇篮，也是麦加和麦地那两座圣城的所在地，阿拉伯语在宗教和文化上都具有特别重要的意义。在也门和约旦等其他地区，阿拉伯语有多种方言，反映了该语言固有的多样性。黎巴嫩以其文化和宗教的多样性而闻名，在其历史上也受到许多其他语言的影响，拥有多种阿拉伯方言。因此，该地图证实，阿拉伯语不仅是一种日常交流语言，而且在整个中东地区文化和历史的保护和传承方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

印欧语系和闪米特语系镶嵌画

地图上的绿色区域表示印欧语系的存在，它们见证了中东地区民族语言和历史的多样性。例如，波斯语是伊朗的官方语言，具有相当大的文化和文学影响。这种语言可以追溯到古代阿契美尼德帝国，证明了该地区的历史底蕴。库尔德语则是在地理上不连续的地区使用，主要分布在库尔德斯坦山区，横跨土耳其、伊拉克、伊朗和叙利亚等几个现代国家边界。库尔德语是库尔德人的母语，尽管该地区面临同化和政治变革的压力，但库尔德人仍保持着自己的语言和文化。亚美尼亚语是另一种重要的印欧语言，在亚美尼亚和亚美尼亚侨民中使用，尽管经历了历史动荡，包括 20 世纪初的亚美尼亚种族灭绝，亚美尼亚语仍得以保存。亚美尼亚语有自己独特的字母表，创建于 5 世纪，是亚美尼亚民族特性的一个关键要素。这些印欧语系的 "岛屿 "不仅代表了族群的地理分布，也反映了塑造中东地区的复杂迁徙运动和历史互动。语言是文化和集体记忆的载体，它们的分布让我们得以一窥这个充满巨大变革动力的地区的复原、适应和文化保护历史。

地图突出显示了突厥语（以不同深浅的红色为标志）占主导地位的地区。这些语言属于乌拉尔-阿尔泰语系，使用这些语言的民族的历史和文化深受移民和突厥帝国的影响。土耳其的国语土耳其语是这一语系中最显著的代表，它是奥斯曼帝国遗产的直接结果，奥斯曼帝国在鼎盛时期曾疆域辽阔，遍及中东、东南欧和北非。奥斯曼帝国不仅传播其语言，还在其领土上传播其文化、行政管理和宗教影响。阿塞拜疆和伊朗一些社区使用的阿塞拜疆语与土耳其语关系密切，是该地区突厥语的另一个重要分支。这些社区与土耳其和其他突厥民族有着共同的文化和历史联系。

其他突厥语虽然使用较少，但在邻近地区，包括俄罗斯、中亚和高加索的部分地区也有使用。这些语言虽然各具特色，但因其相似的起源和历史发展而具有共同特征。这些突厥语的存在见证了中亚草原游牧民族迁徙的影响，他们穿越中东，在该地区留下了不可磨灭的语言和文化印记。这些语言及其使用者在现代中东的民族和文化多样性中继续发挥着重要作用。

该地图突出了高加索语和其他少数民族语言，以棕色和灰色为代表，揭示了中东语言多样性中经常被忽视的一个方面。这些语言是人口密度较低但语言和文化多样性丰富的地区的特征。高加索地区的语言复杂性尤为突出。格鲁吉亚语等语言是该地区的特有语言，格鲁吉亚语有自己独特的书写系统--卡尔特维利亚语。格鲁吉亚拥有独特的历史和文化，是语言可以概括一个国家特征的鲜明例子。

除格鲁吉亚语外，还有阿布哈兹语和奥塞梯语等世界上其他地方都不使用的高加索语言。这些语言往往在地理和历史上与世隔绝，但却独立生存和发展，形成了独特的语言特点。它们的生存证明了高加索地区各族人民面对数百年的政治和社会变革所表现出的文化韧性。另一方面，少数民族语言可能由小社区使用的语言种类组成，通常反映了丰富的文化遗产和独特的传统。虽然这些语言在使用人数上不占优势，但它们在保护该地区文化多样性和非物质遗产方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此，地图上高加索语言和少数民族语言的分布提醒我们，中东不仅是一个冲突和贸易地区，也是一个语言和文化丰富多彩的地区，但在全球的叙述中却常常被忽视。

这幅地图不仅仅是语言多样性的缩影，它还展示了定居、贸易、征服和文化的历史。中东地区语言和民族的分布受到地理因素、历史帝国、移民运动和政治变革的影响。语言作为文化的载体，反映了这些复杂的动态变化，了解语言对于了解该地区丰富的历史和文化至关重要。地图上的语言不仅仅是简单的交流工具，它们还体现了使用这些语言的文明的灵魂。每种语言都是一种文化身份的体现，承载着千百年来交织在一起的传统、诗歌、故事和哲学。例如，波斯文学的特点是哈菲兹和鲁米等诗人的作品，他们不仅影响了自己的家乡，也影响了世界思想和文学。

突厥语的史诗《Dede Korkut》传达了草原游牧民族的价值观和故事，高加索语的口述历史见证了他们抵抗征服和帝国的历史。即使是只有少数群体使用的少数民族语言，也是独特文化的宝库，为人们了解往往不同于主流文化的生活方式和信仰体系提供了一个窗口。因此，中东的语言地图就像一幅活的马赛克画，每种颜色不仅代表一个使用语言的群体，也代表人类历史的一个篇章。迁徙、征服和贸易塑造了这一地区，但正是语言和文化留存了下来，并继续讲述着这一地区各民族的故事。它们是连接过去、现在和未来的纽带，使遗产得以延续，并在当代互动中继续发展。

方言和少数民族语言：活的文化遗产

中东多数民族语言中的方言多样性是一种经常被低估的丰富性。以土耳其语为例，尽管学校教授的是一种标准语言，媒体和政界也使用这种语言，但许多地区方言并存，反映了土耳其不同地区的历史和文化。这些方言在发音、词汇甚至语法方面都与标准土耳其语有很大不同。阿拉伯语也许是这种方言多样性最显著的例子之一。文学阿拉伯语或现代标准阿拉伯语被普遍理解并用于写作和正式讲话中，但在日常生活中，人们使用的各种方言却可能大相径庭，以至于来自遥远地区的人有时很难相互理解。这些方言不仅反映了地理区域，还反映了历史影响，如奥斯曼人、波斯人和法国人在黎凡特的影响。库尔德语也分为几种主要方言，如库尔曼吉语（Kurmandji）、索拉尼语（Sorani）和佩勒瓦尼语（Pehlewani），每种方言都有自己的地区变体。这些库尔德方言之间的差异如此之大，以至于有时会有人要求获得独立的语言地位。至于亚美尼亚语，虽然有一种标准的亚美尼亚语，但世界各地的亚美尼亚人也讲不同的方言，这些方言往往受到他们移居或散居地区语言的影响。除这些主要语言外，中东地区还有约 20 种少数民族语言，反映了人类交流、迁移和适应的复杂历史。这些语言可能只在少数族群中使用，但它们所承载的历史和文化值得认可和保护。它们在如此丰富的语言环境中存在，进一步证明了语言是如何演变并适应其使用环境的，而且往往与该地区的主流语言并行不悖。

语言与国家认同：政治与文化之间

与世界其他地区一样，人口迁移和宗教一直是中东地区语言传播和演变的强大媒介。从历史上看，人口迁移对语言的传播起着至关重要的作用。例如，七世纪阿拉伯人在伊斯兰教扩张的推动下入侵，将阿拉伯语传播到中东和北非。这种扩张不仅传播了阿拉伯语，还融合并影响了当地语言，产生了多种不同的阿拉伯方言。同样，突厥帝国的扩张，尤其是奥斯曼帝国的扩张，扩展了突厥语，并在整个中东、巴尔干和北非建立了奥斯曼土耳其语（一种受波斯语和阿拉伯语影响的土耳其语）作为行政和文学语言。宗教也促进了语言的采用和标准化。阿拉伯语作为《古兰经》的语言，成为世界各地穆斯林之间的语言纽带，其使用范围超出了传统的阿拉伯语边界。同样，犹太教和基督教的宗教经文也帮助保存了希伯来语和阿拉米语，即使这些语言已不再被日常使用。中东的语言并非一成不变；它们是各民族、信仰和历史之间不断互动的结果。语言通过贸易、征服、殖民和皈依而传播，形成了我们今天看到的复杂的语言景观。

现代中东民族国家的形成对语言实践产生了相当大的影响。通过建立一种或多种官方语言，国家往往寻求促进统一的民族身份认同，并促进其境内的交流和管理。这种语言政策可能导致民族主义意识的增强，使官方语言成为民族团结的象征和集体认同的关键因素。例如，奥斯曼帝国灭亡后，土耳其于 1923 年建立了土耳其共和国，在土耳其推广标准土耳其语的目的是将该国不同的人口统一在一个单一的土耳其民族身份之下。同样，阿拉伯语国家采用现代标准阿拉伯语也常常与泛阿拉伯民族主义运动联系在一起。然而，标准化和推广国语也可能产生意想不到的后果，特别是会使地区或少数民族语言和方言边缘化。这可能导致其公共使用率下降，有时还会削弱其长期生存能力，甚至导致其消失。例如，许多库尔德少数民族语言和方言在不同国家受到压制，以实现文化同化。

自相矛盾的是，禁止或压制某些语言也可能导致人们对这些语言和方言重新产生兴趣，因为这些语言和方言往往被视为一个社区文化特性的基本要素。在某些情况下，这会引发语言和文化抗议运动。例如，土耳其多年来一直压制亚美尼亚语的公开使用，这导致世界各地的亚美尼亚社区对该语言的认识和欣赏有所提高。归根结底，中东的语言政策反映了构建民族特性与保护文化和语言多样性之间的矛盾。对这些政策的反应多种多样，既有对国语的热情采用，也有作为一种文化保护和政治反抗行为对传统语言的抵制和维护。

宗教信仰全景

中东通常被广义地定义为包括安纳托利亚（现代土耳其的亚洲部分）、埃及（虽然在地理上位于北非，但在文化和历史上与中东有联系）和美索不达米亚（相当于现代伊拉克和叙利亚的领土，以及伊朗和土耳其的部分地区）等地区。该地区具有丰富的文化和历史多样性，被公认为世界几大宗教的发祥地。

犹太教是最早的一神教之一，兴起于黎凡特地区，特别是历史上的迦南地区，该地区现划分为以色列和巴勒斯坦领土。犹太教的根源可追溯到 3000 多年前，在该地区的宗教和文化发展中发挥了核心作用。公元 1 世纪从犹太教发展而来的基督教也起源于中东，特别是历史上的犹太地区。它在罗马帝国内外迅速传播，成为世界主要宗教。伊斯兰教是亚伯拉罕三大宗教中的最新宗教，7 世纪初先知穆罕默德在阿拉伯城市麦加得到启示。它迅速传遍阿拉伯半岛，并通过征服和贸易，传播到亚洲、非洲和欧洲的广大地区。除了这些亚伯拉罕宗教外，中东还是琐罗亚斯德教的发源地，琐罗亚斯德教由先知查拉图斯特拉（或琐罗亚斯德）在古波斯（今伊朗）创立。琐罗亚斯德教是伊斯兰教化之前波斯的主要宗教之一，通常被认为是最古老的一神教之一，其善恶斗争的二元论观念影响了其他宗教传统。

每种宗教都为该地区丰富的文化和历史锦绣做出了贡献，并继续深刻影响着现代中东的生活、文化和政治。宗教的多样性和深厚的历史底蕴使中东对世界各地的学者、信徒和游客具有特别重要的意义。

犹太教的基础和演变

早期犹太教和一神论

犹太教被认为是历史上最早的一神教之一。犹太教兴起于今天的以色列及其周边地区的黎凡特地区，在人类的宗教和文化发展中发挥了至关重要的作用。犹太教的起源可追溯到公元前 2000 年左右，《圣经》中的亚伯拉罕、以撒和雅各被视为犹太教的始祖。犹太教的核心是信仰唯一的神--耶和华（Yahweh），以及《托拉》（Torah）中表达的一系列法律和道德原则，《托拉》是被称为 "塔纳赫"（Tanakh）或 "希伯来圣经"（Hebrew Bible）的大型圣典集的一部分。犹太教与当时其他宗教传统的区别在于其严格的一神论。许多古代文化都信奉多神教，而犹太教则肯定存在一个唯一的主神，他是宇宙的创造者，也是人类的道德指南。

除了宗教层面，犹太教还具有强烈的民族和文化层面。犹太人认为自己不仅是一种信仰的信徒，也是一个民族或国家的成员，共同的历史和传统将他们联系在一起。几个世纪以来，犹太教对许多其他宗教信仰和习俗产生了重大影响，尤其是基督教和伊斯兰教，它们与犹太教有着某些渊源，并承认圣经中的许多犹太人物是先知或重要导师。

亚伯拉罕和犹太族长世系

亚伯拉罕通常被视为一神教之父，是犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教的核心人物。根据犹太教传统，亚伯拉罕出生在美索不达米亚的乌尔，而不是希腊的埃德萨。埃德萨是土耳其的一座历史名城，被称为乌尔法，但在《圣经》中与亚伯拉罕的故事并无关联。圣经》中描述了亚伯拉罕奉上帝之命从美索不达米亚前往迦南的旅程，上帝许诺要让亚伯拉罕的后裔成为一个伟大的民族。亚伯拉罕与妻子撒拉及其奴隶夏甲之间复杂的关系是故事的关键因素。无法生育的撒拉将夏甲送给亚伯拉罕，生下了以实玛利。萨拉后来生下了以撒。在犹太传统中，以撒是应许之子，犹太人认为自己是他的后裔。在伊斯兰教传统中，以实玛利通常被视为应许之子，尽管伊斯兰教也承认以撒的重要性。以撒的儿子雅各布也是一个重要人物。根据传统，他有 12 个儿子，他们的后代成为以色列的十二个部落，标志着希伯来人的形成。

埃及出埃及记和西奈山的启示

在埃及为奴的故事是犹太历史的另一个基本部分。希伯来人在埃及生活了几个世纪后，在犹太传统中的另一位核心人物摩西的领导下获得了自由。出埃及被称为 "出埃及记"，是犹太历史上的一个重要事件，每年的逾越节（Pesach）都会庆祝这一事件。这些故事不仅是宗教叙事，也塑造了犹太民族的文化和历史身份。它们强调了犹太人、他们的土地和他们的信仰之间持续不断的关系，这种关系对于理解犹太文化和历史仍然至关重要。

摩西的形象和西奈山的启示事件是犹太传统中最重要的事件之一，在犹太民族的历史和身份认同中具有深远的意义。根据《圣经》的记载，摩西是在埃及法老家中长大的希伯来人，他被上帝选中，将以色列人从奴役中解救出来。在经历了包括埃及十灾在内的一系列奇迹之后，摩西带领以色列人离开了埃及，这一事件被称为 "出埃及记"。出埃及记》不仅代表了犹太民族的肉体解放，还代表了他们作为一个在上帝领导下的统一民族的崛起。

他们旅程中最关键的时刻是西奈山的启示，根据传统，上帝（耶和华）在那里赐予摩西《圣经》，包括十诫。这一时刻被视为上帝与以色列人之间的基本盟约，他们在此接受了一套指导其精神和社会生活的法律和指令。作为犹太教核心的《圣经》不仅包括律法和教义，还包括犹太民族自创世以来的历史。十诫》尤为重要，因为它们不仅为犹太教，也为基督教，甚至间接为伊斯兰教确立了基本的道德和伦理原则。它们被视为犹太教-基督教传统中法律和道德的基石。这些事件在犹太教中的重要性不容低估。它们不仅是犹太教信仰的核心，也塑造了犹太民族的价值观、习俗和身份。在逾越节（Pesach）上纪念出埃及和在沙窝奥特节（Shavuot）上接受《圣经》，就是这些历史事件如何融入犹太节日和庆祝活动年度周期的例子，不断提醒犹太人民他们的历史和对上帝的承诺。

征服迦南和先知时代

出埃及和穿越沙漠之后，以色列人在约书亚的带领下进入了迦南，根据《圣经》记载，这是上帝应许给他们祖先的一块土地。圣经》中描述的这一过程包括一系列战斗和征服，以建立以色列人在该地区的存在。然而，必须指出的是，《圣经》中描述的这些事件的历史准确性在历史学家和考古学家之间存在争议。

公元前 10 世纪在位的大卫王是犹太民族历史上的核心人物。根据传统，他统一了以色列各部落，征服了耶路撒冷，并将其作为王国的首都。耶路撒冷在犹太传统中占据了重要地位，不仅是政治中心，也是精神中心。他的儿子所罗门王因在耶路撒冷建造了第一圣殿而闻名于世。这座圣殿成为犹太人崇拜的中心，并被认为是约柜的所在，约柜里装有在西奈山赐给摩西的律法石板（十诫）。所罗门圣殿不仅是以色列王国主权和统一的象征，也是对犹太人具有重要宗教意义的地方。

以色列王国和犹大王国时期，犹太传统中的重要人物--先知们的活动也是这一时期的特点。这些先知，如以赛亚、耶利米和以西结，在为国王出谋划策、批评社会和道德不公以及提醒人们谨记上帝诫命方面发挥了至关重要的作用。他们的信息和著作是圣经文本的重要组成部分，并继续影响着犹太宗教思想。这一时期对塑造犹太人的身份和信仰至关重要。它确立了耶路撒冷作为犹太教精神核心的地位，并为许多仍是当代犹太教核心的习俗和信仰奠定了基础。

所罗门死后，约公元前 926 年，统一的以色列王国一分为二：北方王国称为以色列，以撒玛利亚为首都；南方王国称为犹大，以耶路撒冷为首都。这种分裂不仅反映了政治和经济上的紧张关系，也反映了两个王国在宗教和文化上的差异。北方王国以色列在领土和人口方面都更大，但由于其地理位置，它也更容易受到外部影响和入侵。

公元前 722 年，当时强大的亚述帝国入侵并征服了撒玛利亚，北方王国最终遭受了毁灭性的失败。这一事件标志着以色列王国的灭亡，大部分人口被驱逐和驱散，这一现象通常被称为 "失落的以色列十部落"。这种驱逐和分散不仅在政治和军事上，而且在文化和宗教认同方面都产生了深远的影响。南方的犹大王国在这一时期幸存下来，但成为包括新巴比伦帝国在内的多个帝国的附庸。然而，随着公元前 586 年巴比伦人征服耶路撒冷并摧毁第一圣殿，犹大最终也灭亡了，随后巴比伦人流放了犹大的精英。这些事件在犹太历史上具有重要意义。它们不仅是政治和军事上的转折点，也是文化和宗教变革的关键时刻。征服、流放和回归的经历对犹太人的思想和文学产生了深远的影响，尤其是《圣经》中大量经文的写作，以及围绕《圣经》和宗教团体对犹太人身份和信仰的强化。

王国的迁移和散居的黎明

公元前 722 年，亚述人摧毁了以色列王国，这对以色列人来说是第一次重大灾难（希伯来语称 "Churban"）。这次入侵导致北方王国的十个部落离散，也就是人们常说的 "以色列失落的十个部落"。这一离散对犹太民族的集体身份和历史记忆产生了深远的影响。为了应对这些艰难困苦以及在流亡和外国统治下生活的挑战，犹太拉比和学者在保存和解释犹太传统方面发挥了至关重要的作用。不过，需要注意的是，作为犹太口头律法主要汇编的《密西拿》成书较晚，大约在公元 2 世纪末，远在以色列和犹太王国时期之后。密西拿》与《革马拉》（对《密西拿》的注释）一起构成了犹太法典，是拉比犹太教的核心文本。

塔纳赫包括《托拉》（摩西五经）、《先知书》（Nevi'im）和《文集》（Ketuvim，包括诗篇）。以利亚、以赛亚和耶利米等先知生活在不同时期，他们在以色列人的宗教和社会生活中发挥着至关重要的作用，传递着改革、社会正义和忠于上帝的信息。这些先知往往在危机和变革时期行事，他们的教诲和行动反映了犹太民族面临的挑战。他们的著作是《内维亚姆》（Nevi'im）的一部分，是了解犹太教、犹太教精神和犹太民族历史的基础。这些经文在维护犹太特性方面发挥了至关重要的作用，是力量和灵感的源泉，尤其是在遭受迫害和分散的时期。

公元前 587 年，新巴比伦帝国国王尼布甲尼撒二世摧毁了耶路撒冷的第一圣殿，这对犹太人来说是一场重大灾难。这次毁灭伴随着大部分犹太人被驱逐到美索不达米亚，是一次毁灭性的事件，给犹太人的集体意识打上了深深的烙印。巴比伦流放不仅象征着领土和政治上的损失，也象征着深刻的精神和身份危机，迫使犹太人重新思考他们与上帝的关系、他们的历史和他们作为一个民族的身份。公元前 539 年，波斯帝国国王居鲁士大帝征服巴比伦，犹太人开始返回犹太。居鲁士以其宽容和恢复包括犹太人在内的流离失所民族的政策而闻名。根据《圣经》中《以斯拉记》的记载，居鲁士曾颁布诏书，允许犹太人返回犹太并重建耶路撒冷的圣殿。这次回归始于公元前 538 年左右，标志着犹太社区的复兴。

第二圣殿得以重建，但在希律大帝时期并未开始建造。重建圣殿的过程开始得更早，大约在公元前 516 年，从而完成了《圣经》中预言的 70 年流亡期。第二圣殿一直是犹太人的主要宗教和社区中心，直到公元 70 年被罗马人摧毁。希律大帝在位时间更晚（公元前 37-4 年），据说他对第二圣殿进行了大规模的翻修和扩建，使其更加辉煌壮丽。经希律大帝扩建和美化后的圣殿正是耶稣时代的圣殿，《新约圣经》中经常提到它。

圣殿后犹太教和犹太社区的演变

公元前 1 世纪罗马征服巴勒斯坦后，巴勒斯坦被罗马统治。公元前 332 年，马其顿的亚历山大大帝征服了该地区，标志着希腊化时期的开始。亚历山大死后，该地区被多个希腊王朝控制，特别是埃及的托勒密王朝和叙利亚的塞琉西王朝。直到公元前 1 世纪，犹太才成为罗马帝国的一个客户王国。在罗马的统治下，犹太人经历了一段时期的压迫，宗教和文化上的紧张关系以及沉重的赋税加剧了这种压迫。公元 70 年，罗马人在未来皇帝提图斯的指挥下摧毁了耶路撒冷的第二圣殿，这对犹太人来说是一个毁灭性事件。这次毁灭发生在犹太人反抗罗马统治的大起义之后。圣殿被视为犹太教的精神和民族中心，圣殿的消失对犹太人的宗教认同和宗教实践产生了深远的影响。圣殿被毁后，犹太人加速了流散（或称 "散居"）。虽然在圣殿被毁之前，整个古代世界已经有分散的犹太人社区（例如在埃及、巴比伦、希腊和意大利），但这一事件标志着一个更广泛、更系统的分散时期的开始。许多犹太人逃离或被驱逐出犹太，在罗马帝国内外的不同地区定居下来。这种流散对犹太教产生了持久的影响。没有了圣殿作为敬拜中心，犹太教发生了演变，更加强调祈祷、研读圣典和在犹太会堂进行宗教活动。散居各地的犹太人成为犹太人身份认同的一个核心要素，尽管他们分散在不同的地域，但他们的信仰和历史将他们团结在一起。

从 "希伯来人 "到 "犹太人 "的身份转变是犹太历史的一个重要方面，与领土丧失和政治变革等多种因素有关。希伯来人"（希伯来语 Ivrim）一词最初在《希伯来圣经》中用来指以色列人的祖先，尤其是在他们与其他民族的关系中。该词通常与犹太历史的早期时期有关，尤其是族长（亚伯拉罕、以撒、雅各）和出埃及时期。另一方面，"犹太人"（希伯来语为 Yehudim）一词来源于 "犹大"（Yehuda），犹大是雅各布的十二个儿子之一，也是以色列十二个部落之一。在统一王国分裂为以色列（在北）和犹大（在南）两个不同的王国，以及以色列王国落入亚述人之手后，犹大王国成为以色列人身份认同的中心。当巴比伦人摧毁第一圣殿并流放大部分犹大人时，这些人被称为 "Yehudim "或 "犹太人"。

公元 70 年，罗马人摧毁了第二圣殿，犹太人随之流散，犹太人的身份认同更加以宗教和文化为中心，而不是以特定的领土或政治主权为中心。因此，"犹太人 "一词成为宗教和文化归属的同义词，而不仅仅是种族或民族归属。领土的丧失和政治的变迁无疑在这一演变中起到了一定的作用，但从 "希伯来人 "到 "犹太人 "的转变也反映了该民族在理解和自我认同方面的内在演变。因此，"犹太人 "一词包含了宗教、文化和种族认同，超越了地理和政治界限。

世界各地的犹太语言和文化

最初来自中欧和东欧的阿什肯纳兹犹太人发展了独特的语言和文化。他们的语言意第绪语就是这种独特文化的杰出代表。意第绪语是一种日耳曼语，融合了希伯来语和斯拉夫语的元素，反映了阿什肯纳兹犹太人的历史和经历。这种语言不仅是日常交流的工具，也是阿什肯纳兹犹太人文学、戏剧和诗歌的重要载体。另一方面，主要来自伊比利亚半岛（西班牙和葡萄牙）的塞法尔迪犹太人发展了另一种混合语言，即拉迪诺语或犹太西班牙语。拉迪诺语与意第绪语类似，融合了西班牙语、希伯来语以及土耳其语和阿拉伯语等其他语言，反映了 1492 年塞法迪犹太人被逐出西班牙后的迁徙和交往。

在宗教习俗方面，犹太教多种多样。正统派严格遵守犹太律法和传统，而改革派或自由派（又称进步派或温和派）则倾向于采用更为灵活的解释和做法。此外，还有保守主义和重建主义运动，它们在坚持传统和适应当代现实之间寻求平衡。这种多样性反映了犹太教在保持其特性和基本价值观的同时不断发展和适应的能力。世界各地不同的犹太社区，无论是阿什肯纳兹、塞法尔迪还是其他血统，都为丰富多彩的犹太文化和传统做出了贡献，每个社区都带来了自己独特的观点和经验。

基督教的起源和分支==

基督教在罗马帝国的扩展

基督教以拿撒勒人耶稣为中心，基督徒承认他是弥赛亚（基督）和上帝之子。他的出生、生活、教导、死亡和复活是基督教信仰的核心。

根据《新约圣经》，耶稣出生在犹太的一个小镇伯利恒。马太福音》和《路加福音》记述了耶稣出生的经过，其中提到耶稣的母亲马利亚是童贞女，天使宣布耶稣降生是一件非常重要的事情。耶稣一生的大部分时间都在加利利地区度过，他宣讲爱、怜悯和悔改的信息，呼吁人们进行精神重建并与上帝建立个人关系。根据福音书的记载，他聚集了一批门徒，并创造了各种奇迹。

他在耶路撒冷被钉死在十字架上是基督教的核心时刻。基督徒相信，耶稣通过他的死，为宽恕人类的罪孽做出了终极牺牲，而他三天后的复活则带来了救赎和永生的应许。每年的基督教复活节都会纪念这一事件。基督教始于公元 1 世纪的犹太教运动，但很快就传播到了罗马帝国内外的其他人群，主要是非犹太教人群。耶稣的形象及其教义对人类历史产生了深远的影响，不仅塑造了基督教，还塑造了西方和世界文明的许多方面。

基督教的合法化和制度化

君士坦丁一世皇帝于公元 313 年颁布《米兰敕令》，使基督教在罗马帝国合法化，结束了官方的迫害。后来，在公元 380 年皇帝狄奥多西一世的统治下，基督教通过《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》成为罗马帝国的官方宗教。帝国的这一承认深刻地改变了基督教，使其得以传播并影响到罗马社会的方方面面。然而，基督教与帝国权力结构的融合也在基督教团体内部造成了紧张和分歧。一些基督教团体试图与官方教会和帝国保持距离，他们或是因为神学上的分歧，或是为了回应他们所认为的信仰的腐败或政治化。这些团体通常被官方教会称为教派或异端，他们试图保留一种他们认为更真实或更忠于耶稣和使徒们最初教义的基督教形式。

这些分歧导致了基督教内部的各种分裂和运动，其中一些持续了几个世纪。神学争论（如三位一体的性质或耶稣的神性与人性之间的关系）、文化和语言差异以及帝国内部的政治冲突加剧了这些分歧。因此，基督教融入罗马帝国的结构产生了复杂的影响：它使宗教得到了前所未有的扩展和制度化，但同时也播下了内部分裂的种子，这些分裂将在随后的几个世纪中继续影响基督教的历史。

关于耶稣本质的争论是基督教历史上最伟大、最重要的争论之一。这个神学问题涉及耶稣的神性与人性之间的关系，是许多争论的核心，并导致了早期教会的几次大公会议。主要问题是耶稣如何既是完全的神，又是完全的人。这个问题在公元 325 年的尼西亚大公会议上首次得到了重要解决，三位一体的教义在此会议上开始形成。该会议产生的《尼西亚信经》确认耶稣与天父 "同质"（homoousios），从而确立了耶稣的完全神性。然而，这一声明并没有结束争论。在随后的几个世纪里，出现了不同的思想流派。其中最有影响力的两个派别是阿里乌派和景教派，阿里乌派认为耶稣虽然是神，但与天父不是同一物质，因此低于天父；景教派则认为耶稣的神性和人性是分开和不同的。

这些争论在公元 451 年的卡尔西顿大公会议上达到高潮，最终形成了所谓的基督 "双重性"：人们承认耶稣既具有完全的神性，又具有完全的人性，两种本性合而为一，没有混合、混淆或分离。这一教义被称为卡尔西基督论。这场关于耶稣本质的争论不仅仅是一个抽象的神学问题，它在罗马帝国内外产生了重大的政治、社会和文化影响。对这些问题的分歧导致了教会内部的分裂，甚至引发了冲突和迫害。各个基督教团体应对这些问题的方式极大地影响了基督教在随后几个世纪的演变。

尼西亚会议与基督教教义的形成

公元 325 年召开的尼西亚会议是基督教历史上的关键时刻，原因有几个。这是第一次大公会议，来自罗马帝国各地的主教聚集一堂，就核心神学问题进行辩论并做出决定。阿里乌斯是一位来自亚历山大的牧师，他主张耶稣与父神不是同一物质，而是上帝创造的、比他低等的受造物。尼西亚大公会议摒弃了阿里乌主义，确认耶稣与天父 "同质"（具有相同的物质），从而肯定了耶稣的完全神性。这一决定被编入《尼西亚信经》，成为基督教信仰的基本声明。

然而，尼西亚信经的决定并没有解决所有的争议。它导致形成了不同的解释和教会，特别是在东方教会和西方教会之间。这些分歧不仅与神学问题有关，也与语言、文化和政治问题有关。例如，雅各派遵循雅各-巴拉戴的教义，与叙利亚东正教会有联系。他们拒绝接受卡尔西顿大公会议（公元 451 年）的决定，卡尔西顿大公会议进一步阐述了基督的本质，确认他具有神性和人性，合二为一。雅各派和其他团体，如景教和基督一性一派，形成了各自不同的教会团体，往往与占统治地位的帝国和教会当局所确立的教义对立。

基督教内部的这些分歧和争论极大地影响了该宗教的演变，导致世界各地基督教传统的复杂拼接。这些不同的团体保持着各自的神学诠释、礼仪实践和组织结构，在过去的几个世纪里，为基督教丰富多彩、有时甚至相互冲突的多样性做出了贡献。

卡尔西会议与戴奥菲斯派基督论

公元 451 年召开的卡尔西顿大公会议是基督教历史上的一件大事，因为它正面解决了基督本质这一复杂问题。大公会议通常被视为基督教会几个世纪以来基督论争论的高潮。卡尔西顿大公会议的决定确立了耶稣基督具有两种不同的本性--神性和人性--合而为一（hypostasis）。这种说法被称为 "基督二性说"（Dyophysite Christology）。根据这一教义，基督的两个本体共存，没有混淆、没有改变、没有分裂、也没有分离。这意味着，虽然基督既是完全的神，也是完全的人，但他的两种本性并不混合，从而保留了他完全的神性和完全的人性。

这次大公会议对于确立为大多数基督徒所接受的正统教义至关重要，但也导致了重大分歧。一些教会，特别是一些东方教会，拒绝接受卡尔西顿会议的决定。这些教会通常被称为 "非卡尔西顿教会 "或 "前卡尔西顿教会"，包括埃及的科普特教会、埃塞俄比亚东正教会、亚美尼亚使徒教会等。这些团体坚持自己对基督本质的理解，通常侧重于基督神性与人性的统一。因此，卡尔西顿大公会议标志着基督教历史上的一个关键时刻，它为许多基督教会确立了基本教义，同时也与其他不接受其结论的教会产生了持久的分裂。时至今日，这些基督论分歧仍是基督教不同传统之间分歧的一个重要方面。

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  Emperor Constantine (centre), with the bishops of the Council of Nicaea (325), anachronistically holding the text of the "Nicaea-Constantinople symbol" in its Greek liturgical form, based on the text adopted at the first Council of Constantinople (381).

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  The separation of the Eastern (blue) and Western (orange) Churches from 1054.

神学分歧的政治和文化影响

1054 年的大分裂标志着东方教会（即后来的东正教会）与西方教会（即罗马天主教会）的分离，是基督教的一个历史转折点。这次分裂并非孤立事件，而是基督教两个分支之间长期分歧不断扩大的结果。这些分歧的核心是深刻的神学和教会争端。其中一个主要争论点涉及教皇权威问题。罗马教会以教皇利奥九世（Leo IX）等人为代表，声称拥有对所有基督教会的最高权威，而东方教会则对这一地位提出了质疑。君士坦丁堡牧首会在迈克尔-塞拉勒斯（Michael Cerularus）等领导人的领导下，反对中央集权的思想，主张采取更加合议的方式。

另一个关键争议点是西方教会在《尼西亚信经》中加入了 "Filioque"。这一改动指出圣灵从圣父 "和圣子 "而来，东方教会认为这是对第一次大公会议确立的教义的不可接受的改动。这场争论反映了对三位一体和上帝本质理解上更广泛的分歧。除了神学问题，文化和政治差异也发挥了作用。西罗马帝国的崩溃和拜占庭帝国的崛起在两个地区之间造成了鸿沟。语言上的差异，即拉丁语在西方占主导地位而希腊语在东方占主导地位，也造成了日益扩大的文化鸿沟。

标志着这些紧张关系达到顶峰的象征性事件是 1054 年的互相驱逐。教皇利奥九世派往君士坦丁堡的使节将牧首迈克尔-塞鲁拉鲁斯逐出教会，后者则将使节逐出教会。虽然开除教籍是最引人注目的举动，但它代表了一系列长期分歧和误解的顶点。大分裂对基督教后来的发展产生了深远的影响，巩固了罗马天主教会和东正教会之间的分裂。这一分裂植根于神学、文化和政治分歧，不仅影响了宗教历史，也影响了欧洲及周边地区的政治和文化轨迹。近代以来，人们一直在努力实现对话与和解，但 1054 年分裂所造成的分裂仍在影响着世界的宗教和文化格局。

新教与宗教改革：基督教的变革

16 世纪，基督教因新教的出现而发生了深刻的变化，新教运动对罗马天主教会的教义和实践提出了挑战，并导致了新教改革。这一时期标志着欧洲宗教史上的一个重要转折点，并对全球产生了持久的影响。新教的起源通常归功于德国修道士兼神学家马丁-路德。1517 年，路德在维滕贝格教堂的门上张贴了他的 "95 条论纲"，批评天主教会的各个方面，包括出售赎罪券。由于印刷术的发明，他的文章迅速流传开来，引起了对教会某些做法日益不满的公众的共鸣。

路德挑战了天主教会的主要教义，如教皇的权威和行为对救赎的效力，转而主张唯独因信称义（"sola fide"）和唯独圣经的权威（"sola scriptura"）。这些思想对天主教会的基础提出了挑战，并在整个欧洲发起了一系列宗教改革。新教改革的其他关键人物包括日内瓦的让-加尔文和苏黎世的胡德里赫-茨温利，前者发展了被称为 "加尔文主义 "的神学体系。每一位改革者都帮助形成了新教的不同派别，进而衍生出众多教派，包括路德宗、改革宗、长老会和再洗礼派等。

宗教改革不仅在宗教领域，而且在政治、文化和社会领域都带来了深刻的变化。它导致了整个欧洲的宗教战争、政治权力结构的变化，并对教育、文学和艺术产生了影响。新教改革还为基督教在全世界的扩张铺平了道路，特别是通过在欧洲殖民地的传教活动。因此，16 世纪是基督教发生重大变革的时期，新教挑战了教会的既有结构，重新定义了许多基督徒理解其信仰和信奉其宗教的方式。

在基督教复杂的历史中，一些东方教会曾一度与罗马天主教会建立了联系，形成了融合东西方传统元素的基督教团体。这些教会通常被称为东方天主教会或联合教会，它们保留了自己的礼仪仪式和东方文化遗产，同时接受教皇的权威和罗马天主教的某些教义。这种与罗马联合的运动有多种动机，包括政治考虑、面对外部压力寻求支持的愿望以及神学和教会利益。一个显著的例子是 1596 年的布列斯特联盟，当时波兰-立陶宛东正教会的一些主教同意与罗马天主教会合并，成立了乌克兰希腊天主教会。同样，黎巴嫩的马龙派天主教会也长期与罗马保持共融，同时保留了其东方礼仪和精神传统。

就几个世纪以来的基督徒人口统计而言，在某些地区，特别是中东和北非，基督徒占总人口的比例确实随着时间的推移而下降。这种下降可归因于各种因素，如改宗、移民、政治变革以及社会和经济压力。例如，穆斯林征服中东后，许多基督徒逐渐接受了伊斯兰语言和宗教，尽管该地区仍有基督教社区存在。然而，在全球范围内，基督教得到了长足的发展，这主要是 16 世纪至 20 世纪传教运动和欧洲殖民化的结果。今天，基督教仍然是世界主要宗教之一，在各大洲都有大量存在。值得注意的是，尽管面临各种挑战和变化，基督教团体仍在继续维护他们的信仰和传统，而且往往是在非常不同的文化和政治背景下。基督教有能力在保持其核心信仰的同时进行适应和变革，这是其历史的一个显著方面。

Principles and currents of Islam

Muhammad: Prophet and Foundation of Islam

Islam centres on the figure of Muhammad, considered by Muslims to be the last prophet sent by God to guide humanity. Muhammad's life and teachings play a fundamental role in Islam and have profoundly influenced the development of this religion. Born in Mecca in 570 AD, Muhammad grew up in a context where the Arabian Peninsula was dominated by polytheistic practices and a tribal social system. His youth was marked by orphanhood and poverty, but he later acquired a reputation for trust and integrity in his work as a merchant. These experiences gave him a unique perspective on the various social, economic and religious aspects of his society. According to Islamic tradition, at the age of 40 Muhammad began to receive revelations from God (Allah in Arabic) through the angel Gabriel. These revelations, which continued for 23 years, formed the Koran, the sacred text of Islam.

Muhammad's message emphasised strict monotheism (Tawhid), social justice, moral responsibility and equality before God. Aware of the inequalities and injustices of Meccan society, his teachings called for a radical change in the social and religious structures of the time. However, his preaching met with strong opposition from Meccan leaders, mainly because of the economic and social implications of his message, which challenged the power structures and religious practices established in Mecca. These tensions eventually led to the Hegira (migration) of Muhammad and his first followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD, an event so significant that it marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

The Hegira: A turning point in Islamic history

In Medina, Muhammad established a community (Ummah) based on Islamic principles, where he played a role of spiritual, political and military leader. The following years saw the rapid expansion of Islam across the Arabian Peninsula, as well as the consolidation of the various Arab tribes under the banner of the new faith. After Muhammad's death in 632 AD, his teachings and example continued to guide Muslims. Islam spread rapidly beyond the Arabian Peninsula, becoming a major religious, cultural and political force in the world. Muhammad's life and teachings remain at the heart of the Muslim faith, profoundly influencing the beliefs, practices and culture of Muslims around the world.

The period following Muhammad's death in 632 AD is crucial in the history of Islam, as it laid the foundations for its political structure and internal divisions. The Hegira, Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622, was a founding moment in Islam, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the establishment of a united Muslim community under his leadership.

When Muhammad died in 632, he did not explicitly name a successor to lead him, which led to a crucial question: who should lead the Muslim community (Ummah)? This question gave rise to the two main branches of Islam: Sunnism and Shiism. The Sunnis, who represent the majority of Muslims, believe that Muhammad's successor should be elected from among the members of the Muslim community and follow the "Sunna" (tradition based on Muhammad's teachings and practices). The first caliph elected according to this tradition was Abu Bakr, a close companion and father-in-law of Muhammad. Shiites, on the other hand, believe that the leadership of the Muslim community should remain within Muhammad's family. They maintain that Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was his designated successor. Shiites use the term "Ahl al-Bayt" (people of the house) to refer to Muhammad's family and their descendants.

The period from 632 to 661 AD, known as the period of the 'Rightly Guided Caliphs' or 'Rashidun', saw Abu Bakr's successors, 'Umar and 'Uthman, become Caliphs. Each of these caliphs was elected by consensus or by council from among Muhammad's companions. However, tensions and disagreements over the question of succession led to divisions and conflicts, culminating in the Fitna, a series of civil wars that deeply affected the Muslim community. This period laid the foundations for the caliphate, the political structure of the Muslim empire, which was to develop and change form over the centuries. The initial divisions between Sunnis and Shiites, although mainly theological and political at the outset, significantly shaped the history, politics and culture of the Muslim world.

The Battle of Nehavend and the Fall of the Sassanid Empire

The Battle of Nehavend, which took place around 641-642 AD, is a major historical milestone in the expansion of Islam and the fall of the Sassanid Empire. This military confrontation, which took place in what is now north-west Iran, pitted rising Muslim Arab forces against the army of the Sassanid Empire, a once powerful empire weakened by prolonged conflict and internal unrest. Prior to this battle, the Sassanid Empire, under the reign of Yazdgard III, had already suffered heavy losses in the face of Muslim conquests. The Battle of Nehavend is often seen as the final blow to Sassanid resistance. The Muslim victory in this battle was decisive: not only did it mark the end of organised resistance by the Sassanid Empire, but it also paved the way for the rapid expansion of Islam in the region. This victory, dubbed by Muslims "the victory of victories", had profound consequences for the course of regional history. With the defeat of the Sassanid army, Yazdgard III was forced to flee eastwards, desperately seeking allies to reconquer his empire. However, his efforts proved fruitless, and the Sassanid Empire, once a rival of the Byzantine Empire, disappeared from history.

The impact of this battle goes far beyond the battlefield. It marked the beginning of a major cultural and religious transformation in Persia. With the Muslim conquest, the region began a gradual conversion from the Zoroastrian religion to Islam. This transition was not limited to religious aspects; it also brought about major linguistic and cultural changes. Arabic became the main language of administration and scholarly culture, although Persian language and culture continued to play a significant role in the region. The Battle of Nehavend therefore illustrates how military conquest can have lasting implications for the cultural and religious identity of a region. By transforming the Persia of the Sassanid Empire into a key territory of the Islamic world, this battle not only redrawn the political map of the region, but also laid the foundations for the cultural and religious developments that followed.

The Shiites and their Vision of Islamic Leadership

The Shiites, whose name literally means "followers of Ali", hold that Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, was Muhammad's rightful successor. They believe that Ali and his descendants, the Imams, are the true spiritual and political leaders of the Muslim community. Shiism is based on the idea of the divine legitimacy of Ali's lineage, and its followers focus particularly on the spiritual and mystical aspects of Islam. Sunnis, on the other hand, represent the majority of Muslims and maintain that the caliph should be elected on the basis of his competence and piety. Muawiya, the governor of Syria, became a key figure in Sunni history when he clashed with Ali at the Battle of Siffin in 657. This battle, which ended in a stalemate and led to controversial arbitration, was a decisive moment, exacerbating divisions within the Muslim community. Ali's acceptance of arbitration at Siffin caused a rift with some of his supporters, who felt that by accepting arbitration he was betraying the principles of Islam. These dissidents became known as the Kharijites, a group who advocated a strict and sometimes extreme interpretation of Islam, and who opposed both Ali and Muawiya.

After the assassination of Ali in 661, often attributed to the Kharijites, Muawiya established the Umayyad caliphate, marking the beginning of a dynasty in which succession became hereditary. This period was marked by ongoing tension and conflict between the supporters of Ali and the Umayyad rulers. Muawiya's son Yazid is particularly unpopular in Shia tradition for his role in the massacre of Husayn, Ali's son, at the Battle of Kerbala in 680. This tragic event is at the heart of the Shia commemoration of Ashura and symbolises the fight against injustice and oppression. These early divisions and conflicts within Islam laid the foundations for the doctrinal, political and cultural differences that characterise relations between Sunnis, Shias and Kharijites to this day. These events not only shaped the history of the Muslim world, but also had a profound impact on politics, society and culture in the regions where Islam is practised.

The Battle of Kerbala and its Impact on Shi'ism

The Battle of Kerbala, which took place in Iraq in 680 AD, is one of the most tragic and significant events in the history of Islam, particularly for the Shiites. The battle pitted Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammad's grandson and a central figure in Shi'ism, against the forces of the Umayyad caliph Yazid I. Husayn, along with a small group of supporters and family members, had travelled to Kerbala to challenge the legitimacy of the Umayyad caliphate, which the Shiites considered illegitimate and corrupt. Yazid's vastly superior forces surrounded Husayn and his supporters. Despite offers of surrender, Husayn chose to resist, leading to an unequal battle in which he and almost all his companions were killed. Husayn's death at Kerbala has become a powerful symbol of resistance to oppression and sacrifice for justice in the Shia tradition. His death is commemorated every year during the month of Muharram, particularly on the day of Ashura, when Shiites around the world remember his martyrdom with rituals of mourning and commemoration.

This historical map illustrates the Mediterranean world around 750 AD, highlighting the territorial extent of the Umayyad Caliphate at its height, as well as the other major political entities of the period.

The area in green represents the Umayyad Caliphate, which extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) in the east to the borders of India, encompassing the Maghreb, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula and vast regions of the Middle East. The Umayyad Caliphate, with Damascus as its capital, expanded rapidly following the Muslim conquests that began in the 7th century. The inclusion of cities such as Cordoba, Seville and Toledo shows the extent of their power in Europe, while cities such as Kairouan in North Africa and Fustat in Egypt highlight their presence in Africa. In red, we see the Frankish Kingdom under the reign of Pepin the Short. The Franks, under the leadership of Charles Martel, halted the Umayyad advance into Europe at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which is often regarded as a decisive moment in the containment of Islamic expansion in Western Europe. The colour blue indicates the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, which maintained its capital at Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). Despite losing territory to the Arabs, the Byzantine Empire managed to resist and hold on to key regions such as Anatolia, the Balkans and parts of Italy, as evidenced by the presence of Syracuse and Ravenna on the map. The Lombard Kingdom, not highlighted on the map but present in the region of Northern Italy, is another political entity from this period that was eventually conquered by the Franks. Finally, the small area in light brown represents the Kingdom of Asturias, located in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. This was one of the first Christian kingdoms established after the start of the Muslim conquest of Spain, and is considered to be a predecessor of the Christian kingdoms that later reconquered the territories under Muslim control during the Reconquista. The map therefore reflects a period of major geopolitical transitions, with dynamic exchanges of power between kingdoms and empires, and represents territorial demarcations at a time when Europe and the Middle East were deeply influenced by conflicts and exchanges between Christians and Muslims.

The Rise and Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad dynasty, founded by Muawiya after the death of Ali, established its capital in Damascus and ruled a vast empire stretching from Spain to India. Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire underwent considerable expansion and a degree of unification, although their reign was marked by internal tensions, particularly with the followers of Ali and the Shiite communities. The Umayyad caliphate finally came to an end in 750 AD, overthrown by the Abbasid revolution. The Abbasids, who moved the empire's capital to Baghdad, established a new dynasty that marked a turning point in Islamic history, with a cultural, scientific and political revival. The fall of the Umayyads also marked a new phase in the Sunni-Shia division, with the Shia continuing to develop as a distinct community with its own religious doctrines and practices.

The historical map provided represents Europe and the Middle East around the year 880 A.D. It illustrates the complex geopolitics of the period, marked by a mosaic of kingdoms, empires and dynasties. The green area represents the declining Abbasid Caliphate, which succeeded the Umayyads and whose capital was Baghdad. This entity enjoyed a golden age of scientific, cultural and economic development, but during this period its political influence began to wane due to internal revolts and pressure from emerging powers. There were several kingdoms in Spain, including León, Navarre and Aragon, in addition to territories still under Muslim control, such as those governed by the Umayyad emirate of Cordoba, shown in green chequered. These Muslim regions of Spain, known as Al-Andalus, were centres of learning and culture where Muslims, Christians and Jews coexisted. The red and white striped area indicates the Papal States under papal authority, centred around Rome, symbolising papal power in the Italian peninsula. The orange and yellow areas represent the Frankish Kingdom, divided into West and East Francia. By this time, the Carolingian Empire, once unified under Charlemagne, had fragmented, leading to the formation of what would later become France and Germany. The Byzantine Empire, in light blue, with Constantinople as its capital, although weakened by internal struggles and external conflicts, maintained its presence in the eastern Mediterranean, including regions such as Anatolia, the Balkans and parts of southern Italy. In North Africa, the Aghlabid and Idrisid dynasties, as well as the Rustamids (in green with stripes), all stemming from dissidences or branches of the great Islamic movement, established autonomous reigns, with varying degrees of allegiance or independence from the Abbasid caliphate. Finally, the Bulgarian Kingdom, shown in purple, represents another significant power of this period, having extended its influence into the Balkans and sometimes challenging the Byzantine Empire. This map reveals the political fragmentation of the period, with the rise of new powers, the decentralisation of power and the complex interaction between different religious and secular authorities. It depicts a period of transition between the Carolingian age and the beginnings of the formation of European nation-states, while also showing the gradual weakening of the Islamic caliphates in the face of rising internal and external forces.

The Rise and Fall of the Abbasid Caliphate

The transition from the Umayyad to the Abbasid dynasty in 750 AD represented a major turning point in Islamic history. The revolt that led to the fall of the Umayyads was widely supported by Muslims seeking change, particularly Shiites and non-Arabs (such as Persians), who had felt marginalised under Umayyad rule. With the rise of the Abbasids, who claimed descent from Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the centre of power shifted from Damascus to Baghdad. This period, often considered the golden age of Islam, was marked by significant advances in science, culture, philosophy, medicine and law. The Abbasids encouraged the patronage of science and the arts, attracting scholars, artists and thinkers from across the empire and beyond.

However, the Abbasid caliphate began to decline towards the end of the 11th century, largely as a result of the Crusades. These were wars waged by European Christian powers to regain control of the holy sites in the Holy Land. Although the Crusades did not directly overthrow the Abbasids, they weakened the Caliphate by draining its resources and exacerbating internal divisions. At the same time, from the middle of the 13th century, the Mongol invasions posed an even greater threat to the Islamic world. The Mongols, led by chiefs such as Genghis Khan and his successors, conquered vast territories in Asia, including Muslim regions.

The high point of this period of crisis for the Abbasids was the Mongol capture of Baghdad in 1258, led by Hulagu Khan. This conquest not only marked the end of the Abbasid caliphate, but also led to massive destruction and loss of life, bringing to an end the golden age of Islamic civilisation. By the end of the 13th century, the Islamic world had been profoundly transformed, caught between the Crusades in the west and the Mongol invasions in the east. These events not only changed the political structure of Islam, but also had a lasting impact on its cultural, scientific and religious development.

Between 1258 and 1500, the Muslim world remained very fragile between the Crusades and the Mongols. The creation of the Ottoman Empire and the Sefevid Empire (1501-1736) stabilised it.

The map shows the geographical distribution of the three great Muslim empires of the 16th to 18th centuries, often referred to as the "Gunpowder Empires" because of their innovative use of gunpowder in military expansion and consolidation of power. These empires were the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire and the Mughal Empire. The Ottoman Empire, in green, with its capital in Constantinople (now Istanbul), stretched across Anatolia, the Middle East, part of North Africa and the Balkans into Europe. It was an empire that not only made revolutionary use of gunpowder, but also left a lasting legacy in the region in terms of architecture, administration and culture. The area in orange represents the Safavid Empire, centred in Persia (now Iran). The Safavids are notable for establishing Duodecimal Shiism as the official religion of the Empire, which helped shape the religious identity of the region. The Safavid capital was Isfahan, famous for its splendid architecture and its role as a centre for the arts and commerce. In purple, the Mughal Empire covers a large part of the Indian subcontinent. Founded by Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, the Mughal Empire is known for its wealth, its patronage of the arts and architecture - such as the famous Taj Mahal - and its relatively progressive and pluralist administration under emperors such as Akbar. This map illustrates a period when these empires dominated world politics and trade, thanks in part to their military advances and economic power. Their legacy is reflected in the modern borders, languages, religion and culture of the regions they ruled. The period of the Gunpowder Empires was also marked by important cultural and scientific exchanges, frequent territorial wars and flourishing intercontinental trade.

The capture of Cairo by the Ottomans in 1517 was another important milestone in Islamic history, marking the expansion of the Ottoman Empire and its claim to the title of Caliphate. This period marked the beginning of Ottoman hegemony over a large part of the Muslim world, which was to last for several centuries. Under Selim I, the Ottomans defeated the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria, extending their empire across the Middle East, North Africa and parts of Europe. With this expansion, Selim I claimed the title of Caliph, asserting not only political power but also religious authority over Sunni Muslims. The transfer of the centre of the Caliphate to Istanbul, the Ottoman capital, strengthened the position of the Ottoman Empire as a major power both in the Islamic world and on the international stage. However, by the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline. Faced with internal and external challenges, including the rise of nationalism among its territories, competition from European powers, and economic problems, the empire began to lose influence and territory.

Despite this decline, the Ottoman Empire retained the title of Caliphate until its abolition. Although the title of Caliph lost much of its actual political significance, it retained symbolic and religious importance. The Caliph was still regarded by many Muslims as the spiritual leader of the Sunni community, even if this position was no longer backed by substantial political or military power. The end of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of the Caliphate after the First World War in 1924 by the Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk marked the end of an era in Islamic history. This left a vacuum in terms of Sunni religious leadership that continues to influence political and religious dynamics in the contemporary Muslim world.

The Abolition of the Caliphate and the Modernisation of Turkey

The abolition of the Caliphate in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, represented a decisive moment in the modern history of the Muslim world. This decision marked the official end of the institution of the Caliphate, which had been a central feature of Islamic governance for almost thirteen centuries. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a reformist and visionary leader, was determined to modernise and secularise Turkey in the wake of the fall of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War. As part of his radical reforms, he sought to transform Turkey into a secular nation-state, moving away from the structures and ideologies of the Ottoman Empire. The abolition of the Caliphate was a key step in this process. In March 1924, the Turkish National Assembly abolished the Caliphate, expelling the last Caliph, Abdülmecid II, and marking the end of one of Islam's oldest and most symbolic institutions. The decision was motivated by Atatürk's desire to promote a national Turkish identity and reduce the influence of Islam on state policy.

The abolition of the Caliphate had a profound impact on the Muslim world. It left a vacuum of religious leadership in Sunni Islam and raised questions about religious and political authority in Islam. Many Muslims around the world were shocked by the decision, and it sparked debate about the nature of leadership in Islam and the role of religion in modern society. Since then, no state or movement has succeeded in re-establishing the Caliphate in a widely recognised manner, although the concept of the Caliphate has continued to feature prominently in Islamic discourse. Atatürk's abolition of the Caliphate remains a significant event in the history of Islam and continues to influence discussions on the relationship between Islam and the state in the contemporary Muslim world.

The Emergence and Fall of the Islamic State of Daesh

Between 2014 and 2019, a significant event took place in the contemporary context of Islam with the self-proclamation of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as Caliph. Al-Baghdadi, the leader of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (EIIS), also known as Daesh, declared the formation of a caliphate over the territories under his organisation's control in Iraq and Syria. This proclamation, made in June 2014, was widely rejected by the global Muslim community, both religious leaders and governments. Daesh's actions and ideology have been condemned as blatantly contradictory to the principles and teachings of Islam. The brutality and extremism of Daesh, including its acts of violence, mass executions and human rights violations, have been universally denounced.

Daesh's so-called caliphate has attempted to establish governance based on an extreme and literal interpretation of Islamic law, but has met with opposition and hostility both locally and internationally. An international coalition, including many Muslim countries, was formed to combat Daesh, resulting in the gradual loss of its territory and the significant weakening of the organisation. In October 2019, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi was killed in a US military operation in Syria, a blow to Daesh's leadership and symbolising the effective end of its so-called caliphate. This period highlighted the challenges facing the contemporary Muslim world, particularly in relation to issues of extremism, governance and Islamic identity. Al-Baghdadi's attempt to revive the concept of the caliphate was seen as a distortion of Islamic principles and raised important questions about the future of governance and religious authority in Islam.

Pre-Islamic Period and the Age of Ignorance: "Jahiliya"

The notion of "Jahiliya" in Islam is a key concept in understanding the Muslim perception of history and society. Jahiliya, which literally translates as "period of ignorance", refers to the pre-Islamic era in Arabia, before the revelation of the Koran to the prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. This period is often characterised in Islamic sources as one of moral and spiritual darkness. The Jahiliya is associated with practices considered incompatible with the teachings of Islam, such as polytheism, social injustice, moral decadence and tribal conflicts. The message of Islam, with its emphasis on monotheism, ethics, social justice and the formation of a community united under faith in one God, is therefore seen as a radical break with the traditions and practices of the Jahiliya.

In contemporary Islamic discourse, the term Jahiliya is sometimes used to describe situations or societies perceived to be far removed from Islamic principles, even beyond the pre-Islamic Arab context. Some Muslim intellectuals and thinkers have used the concept of Jahiliya to criticise what they consider to be corrupt or un-Islamic aspects of modern society, including in Muslim societies themselves. However, this use of the term Jahiliya in a contemporary context is often controversial and debated within the Muslim community. For the majority of Muslims, Jahiliya remains primarily a historical concept, referring specifically to pre-Islamic Arabia and its traditions. Jahiliya is an important notion in Islam, as it symbolises not only a historical past, but also a state of being that Islam seeks to transcend through its teachings on spirituality, morality and community. In spatial terms, Dar al Islam (land of Islam) and Dar al Harb (land of war). There is also a difference between the people: those of the book (Al-Kithab), who adhere to the monotheistic religions and are invited to adhere to Islam, and the others (who disappear).

The Status of Non-Muslims in Islam: "Dhimmi"

In the historical context of classical Islam, the concept of "Dhimmi" is an important notion for understanding how Muslim societies interacted with non-Muslims. Dhimmis are non-Muslim citizens living in an Islamic state, enjoying special protection and certain rights under Islamic law, while being subject to certain restrictions and obligations. According to the principles of Sharia (Islamic law), Dhimmis were mainly adherents of monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Judaism. They were allowed to practise their religion, administer their own community affairs and were protected by the Muslim state. In exchange for this protection and the right to practise their religion, Dhimmis had to pay a special tax called the "jizya". The jizya was seen as a symbol of the Dhimmis' submission to Muslim authority and in exchange for exemption from military service, which was compulsory for Muslim citizens.

This approach was partly based on the teachings of the Koran and the Sunna (tradition of the Prophet Muhammad), which advocate tolerance towards the "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab), the term used to designate Jews and Christians, who, like Muslims, adhere to revealed scriptures. It is important to note that the application of these principles has varied over time and from region to region. In some periods and regions, Dhimmis enjoyed considerable freedom and tolerance, while in other contexts they could be subject to stricter restrictions and discrimination.

With the decline of traditional Islamic empires and the rise of modern nation-states, Dhimmi status gradually lost its practical significance. In the contemporary Muslim world, the principles of citizenship and equal rights regardless of religion have largely replaced the traditional system of Dhimma. However, the historical concept of Dhimma remains a subject of interest and debate among scholars and thinkers, both for understanding the history of Islam and for its implications for contemporary interfaith relations.

Tolerance and the treatment of "People of the Book"

The concept of "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab) in Islam, which refers primarily to Jews and Christians, is centred on tolerance rather than equality in the modern sense of the term. In medieval Islamic societies, this status was a way of recognising and respecting the presence of non-Muslim religious communities within the Islamic state, while establishing a specific legal framework for their integration and interaction with the Muslim majority.

The principles of Sharia (Islamic law) grant the People of the Book certain rights and protections as monotheistic communities with revealed scriptures. They were allowed to practise their religion, maintain their places of worship, and be judged according to their own laws in matters of marriage, divorce and other personal matters. However, this status did not imply complete equality with Muslims within the political and social framework of the time. Dhimmis (non-Muslims living under Muslim protection) had to pay a special tax, the jizya, and were often subject to certain legal and social restrictions. For example, they could be restricted in building new places of worship or publicly manifesting their faith. They were also exempt from military service, which was compulsory for Muslims.

It is important to stress that the implementation and interpretation of these rules varied considerably depending on the period and region. In some historical contexts, communities of People of the Book flourished under Muslim rule, contributing significantly to society, culture and the economy. In other cases, they have faced harsher restrictions and discrimination. In the contemporary context, the concept of the People of the Book and the status of Dhimmi have lost much of their practical relevance, with modern Muslim states generally moving towards principles of citizenship and equal rights, regardless of religion. Nevertheless, these historical concepts remain important for understanding how medieval Islamic societies managed religious diversity and inter-community relations.

Differences and Common Ground: Sunnism vs Shi'ism

The Shi'ite Tradition and its different interpretations

For the Shi'ites, the legitimacy of leadership after the death of Muhammad is based on the principle of divine designation and the family lineage of the Prophet. They believe that the Caliphate should have fallen to Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his descendants, the Imams. The Shiites believe that these Imams, who come from the line of Ali and Fatima (Mohammed's daughter), possess unique spiritual and temporal authority due to their blood relationship with Mohammed and their divine designation. This belief has given rise to a strong culture of martyrdom within Shi'ism, not least because of the tragedies and persecutions suffered by Ali and his descendants, particularly Husayn ibn Ali, who was killed at the Battle of Kerbala. Husayn's martyrdom is central to Shi'ism, symbolising the struggle against injustice and tyranny.

On the other hand, the Sunni majority of Islam does not recognise the hereditary religious authority of the Shia imams. For Sunnis, the caliph must be chosen by consensus or election from among the Muslim community (Ummah) and need not be a direct descendant of Muhammad. Sunnis focus on the Sunna, the teachings and practices of Muhammad, as the source of religious authority, and reject the idea that a specific intermediate authority is needed between God and the believer. For them, religious scholars (ulama) and jurists (fuqaha) play an important role in interpreting the Koran and the Sunna, but they are not considered to have divine or infallible authority. These differences between Shiites and Sunnis in terms of leadership, authority and religious interpretation are at the root of many of the theological, ritual and political differences that characterise these two main branches of Islam.

Shiism is subdivided into several branches, each with its own interpretation of the succession of imams after Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first imam according to the Shiites. The Zaydites, who are mainly found in Yemen, recognise Zayd ibn Ali, Husayn's grandson, as their fifth Imam. They differ from other Shiites in that they do not require the Imam to be a direct descendant of Husayn through his eldest son. The Zaydites have played an important role in the history of Yemen and continue to influence Yemeni politics. The Ismailis, for their part, follow the line of Imams up to the seventh, Ismail ibn Jafar, from whom they take their name. They diverged from Dualism after the sixth imam, Jafar al-Sadiq, recognising Ismail as the next legitimate imam. The Ismailis are known for their esoteric interpretation of the Koran and their rich intellectual tradition. This branch gave rise to the order of Assassins in the Middle Ages and is represented today by the Aga Khan.

Duodeciman Shiism, which is in the majority among today's Shiites, recognises a succession of twelve Imams, the last of whom is Muhammad al-Mahdi. Born in 868, the twelfth imam, according to Duodecimal beliefs, entered occultation in 941. Duodecimans believe that he will return at the end of time as the Mahdi, to establish justice and peace. This belief in the Hidden Imam is a central element of Duodecimal theology and plays an important role in the eschatological expectations of the Shiites. Shiism, with its various branches, thus represents a rich and diverse tradition within Islam, characterised by a particular emphasis on the figure of the Imam, spirituality and the expectation of the Mahdi's return.

Sunni Islam: Legal and Theological Schools

In Sunni Islam, the diversity of jurisprudential and theological interpretations has given rise to several schools of thought, known as Madhahib. These schools do not represent sectarian divisions, but rather different methodological approaches to interpreting the Sharia, Islamic law. The four main schools are the Hanafites, the Malekites, the Shafiites and the Hanbalites.

The Hanafi school, founded by Abu Hanifa in the 8th century, is renowned for its rational approach to jurisprudence. Abu Hanifa, a pioneer in the field of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), emphasised the importance of reason and personal opinion (ra'y) in the interpretation of religious texts. This school is particularly influential in South Asia, Turkey and the Balkans. The Malekite school, established by Malik ibn Anas, emphasises the practices and traditions of the community of Medina, considered to be a model of Islamic society, as this is where the Prophet Muhammad spent the last years of his life. Predominant in North Africa and parts of sub-Saharan Africa, this school is distinguished by its adherence to the hadith, the accounts of the acts and sayings of the prophet. Al-Shafii, founder of the Shafiite school in the early 9th century, introduced a rigorous system that combined tradition (hadith) with analogy (qiyas) and consensus (ijma). His teachings played a crucial role in the codification of Islamic jurisprudence. This school is widely followed in Egypt, South-East Asia and parts of East Africa. Finally, the Hanbalite school, initiated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, is considered the most conservative of the four. Ibn Hanbal was an ardent defender of the hadith as the principal source of Islamic law, rejecting the use of human reason in the interpretation of sacred texts. His school had a notable influence in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States.

These legal schools reflect the diversity and richness of Sunni Islamic thought. They have helped to shape the way Muslims have understood and practised their faith over the centuries. Although there are differences between these schools in terms of methodologies and jurisprudential conclusions, they share a mutual respect and are all recognised as valid interpretations of Islamic law in the Sunni world. This diversity reflects Islam's ability to adapt to different cultural and historical contexts, while maintaining a consistent framework of belief and practice.

The Middle East, rich in cultural and religious diversity, is home to several religious groups which, although sharing roots with Shia Islam, have developed distinctive beliefs and practices. These groups, often labelled syncretic or heterodox, include the Alawites in Syria, the Qizilbash in Iran and Anatolia, the Druze mainly in Lebanon, Syria and Israel, and the Alevis in Turkey.

The Alawites, concentrated in Syria, evolved from Duodeciman Shiism and incorporated elements of Gnosticism, Christianity and other traditions. Their veneration of Ali as a divine manifestation and other aspects of their theology distinguish them from the main currents of Islam. This particular belief in Ali has often been a source of tension with traditional Sunni and Shia communities. The Qizilbash, originally from Anatolia and Iran, played a key role in the establishment of the Safavid Empire in Iran, and their practice of Shiism venerated the Safavid royal family. The term "Qizilbash" has historically been used to designate a variety of Turkish Shiite groups, characterised by their loyalty to the Safavids. The Druze, whose presence is notable in Lebanon, Syria and Israel, emerged from Ismaili Shiism in the 11th century. Their faith incorporates belief in reincarnation and other unique doctrines, and they practice a degree of religious secrecy. The Druze do not seek to convert others and concentrate on their own community. In Turkey, the Alevis form a distinct group, blending elements of Shiism, Sufism and pre-Islamic Anatolian traditions. They value love, tolerance and spirituality, and differ from orthodox Sunni and Shia practices in their rites of worship and beliefs.

These communities, with their unique practices and theological interpretations, illustrate the rich religious mosaic of the Middle East. Their traditions, often marked by a syncretism of beliefs and practices, reflect the historical, cultural and religious influences of the region. Although sometimes viewed with suspicion or hostility by more orthodox Islamic currents, these communities continue to play an important role in the social and cultural fabric of their respective countries, testifying to the diversity and complexity of the religious landscapes of the Middle East.

Annexes

• Ayalon, Ami. Language and change in the Arab Middle East: the evolution of modern political discourse. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1987.
• Myhill, John. Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: a historical study. Vol. 21. John Benjamins Publishing, 2006.