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| Fundamental rights, formerly referred to as "natural rights" in the 18th century, have evolved significantly over time. Historically, these rights were considered to be inherent to human existence, universal and inalienable. Philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau contributed greatly to the conceptualisation of these rights. Locke, for example, in his work "Two Treatises on Government" published in 1689, defended the idea of natural rights such as life, liberty and property, while Rousseau, in "The Social Contract" of 1762, emphasised the importance of the general will and the sovereignty of the people.
| | 基本权利以前在 18 世纪被称为 "自然权利"，随着时间的推移已经发生了重大变 化。从历史上看，这些权利被认为是人类生存所固有的、普遍的和不可剥夺的。约翰-洛克和让-雅克-卢梭等哲学家为这些权利的概念化做出了巨大贡献。例如，洛克在 1689 年出版的著作《政府论》中捍卫了生命权、自由权和财产权等自然权利，而卢梭则在 1762 年出版的《社会契约论》中强调了普遍意志和人民主权的重要性。 |
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| At that time, natural rights were seen as universal moral principles, not dependent on legislation or recognition by the state. However, with the French Revolution and the American Declaration of Independence, these rights began to be formalised in legal documents. The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France marked a major turning point, affirming rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion and equality before the law.
| | 当时，自然权利被视为普遍的道德原则，不依赖于立法或国家的承认。然而，随着法国大革命和美国《独立宣言》的发表，这些权利开始正式写入法律文件。1789 年法国的《人权和公民权利宣言》是一个重要的转折点，它确认了言论自由、宗教自由和法律面前人人平等等权利。 |
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| Over time, the understanding and application of human rights has evolved from a philosophical perspective to a practical and legally binding application. This transition has materialised in the gradual incorporation of fundamental rights into national constitutions and legislation. For example, the Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation, which recognises and protects a range of fundamental rights, illustrates the importance attached to these rights in the modern legal framework. It guarantees not only traditional civil and political liberties, but also economic, social and cultural rights, reflecting the broadening of the concept of human rights beyond its original conception.
| | 随着时间的推移，对人权的理解和应用已从哲学角度发展到实际和具有法律约束力的应用。这一转变具体表现为基本权利逐渐被纳入国家宪法和法律。例如，《瑞士联邦宪法》承认并保护一系列基本权利，表明了现代法律框架对这些权利的重视。它不仅保障传统的公民自由和政治自由，而且还保障经济、社会和文化权利，这反映了人权概念在其最初概念之外的扩展。 |
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| The role of States in recognising and protecting fundamental rights has become crucial. The incorporation of these rights into national legislation has made it possible to create legal mechanisms to guarantee their application and respect. As a result, fundamental rights, although rooted in universal and inalienable principles, are now mainly defined and protected by the legal framework of each State. This development reflects the way in which societies have institutionalised these philosophical concepts, recognising their fundamental importance in protecting and respecting the individual.
| | 国家在承认和保护基本权利方面的作用变得至关重要。将这些权利纳入国家立法，使建立保障其实施和尊重的法律机制成为可能。因此，尽管基本权利植根于普遍的和不可剥夺的原则，但现在主要是由各国的法律 框架来界定和保护的。这一发展反映了社会将这些哲学概念制度化的方式，承认它们在保护和尊重个人方面的根本重要性。 |
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| = The four categories = | | = 四个类别 = |
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| == Freedoms == | | == 自由 == |
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| Freedoms, in the context of fundamental rights, play an essential role in protecting and promoting various aspects of individual existence. They concern a wide range of behaviour and activities, offering each person the latitude to realise his or her aspirations, choices and activities in various areas of life.
| | 在基本权利方面，自由在保护和促进个人生存的各个方面发挥着重要作用。它们涉及广泛的行为和活动，为每个人在生活的各个领域实现自己的愿望、做出选择和开展活动提供了空间。 |
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| These freedoms encompass both physical and mental dimensions. For example, freedom of movement, a fundamental right, allows individuals to move freely within their country and to travel abroad. This freedom is crucial not only for personal activities but also for professional reasons, as in the case of traders or entrepreneurs who need to move to develop their business. In psychological terms, these freedoms include rights such as freedom of expression and freedom of thought, conscience and religion. These freedoms enable individuals to express their opinions, practise their religion or follow their beliefs without fear of censorship or repression. Freedom of expression, for example, is fundamental to a democratic society, as it supports public debate, criticism of government and the exchange of ideas. In addition, individual freedoms include the right to privacy, protecting the personal and family aspects of a person's life from unwanted intrusions. This freedom is increasingly relevant in the digital age, where the protection of personal data has become a major concern.
| | 这些自由包括身体和精神两个方面。例如，迁徙自由作为一项基本权利，允许个人在国内自由迁徙和出国旅行。这种自由不仅对个人活动至关重要，而且对职业原因也很重要，例如商人或企业家需要迁徙以发展其业务。从心理学角度讲，这些自由包括言论自由以及思想、良心和宗教自由等权利。这些自由使个人能够表达自己的观点、信奉自己的宗教或遵循自己的信仰，而不必担心受到审查或压制。例如，言论自由是民主社会的根本，因为它支持公开辩论、批评政府和交流思想。此外，个人自由还包括隐私权，保护个人生活中的个人和家庭生活免受不必要的侵扰。在数字时代，这种自由越来越重要，保护个人数据已成为人们关注的主要问题。 |
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| Fundamental freedoms are essential for personal development and autonomy. They enable individuals to pursue their goals, express their individuality and participate fully in society. These rights are protected by various international legal instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as by national constitutions and laws. Protecting and promoting these freedoms is vital to maintaining an open, dynamic society that respects the rights of every individual.
| | 基本自由对个人发展和自主至关重要。它们使个人能够追求自己的目标、表达自己的个性并充分参与社会。这些权利受到《世界人权宣言》等各种国际法律文书以及各国宪法和法律的保护。保护和促进这些自由对于维护一个尊重每个人权利的开放、充满活力的社会至关重要。 |
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| == The political rights == | | == 政治权利 == |
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| Political rights, which are essential to the functioning of democracy, give citizens the ability to participate actively in the management of public affairs. These rights, anchored in the legal system, reflect the ability of citizens to influence the political direction of their society.
| | 政治权利对民主的运作至关重要，它赋予公民积极参与公共事务管理的能力。这些权利植根于法律制度，反映了公民影响社会政治方向的能力。 |
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| The right to vote is at the heart of these prerogatives. It offers individuals a direct means of expressing their opinions on how they are governed, whether through elections or referendums. The history of the right to vote is littered with significant struggles for inclusion. For example, the suffragette movement, which gained momentum in the early twentieth century, was instrumental in extending the right to vote to women, a major milestone in many countries such as the United Kingdom with the 1918 Act and the United States with the 19th Amendment in 1920.
| | 投票权是这些特权的核心。无论是通过选举还是全民公决，投票权都为个人提供了就如何治理国家表达意见的直接途径。投票权的历史充满了争取包容的重大斗争。例如，20 世纪初兴起的女权运动在扩大妇女投票权方面发挥了重要作用，这在许多国家都是一个重要的里程碑，如英国通过了 1918 年法案，美国在 1920 年通过了第 19 次修正案。 |
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| At the same time, the right to elect, which allows citizens to choose their representatives, is a pillar of representative democracy. This right ensures that governments reflect the diversity and preferences of society. It also allows for the fair representation of different opinions and interests, thus ensuring more inclusive and democratic governance.
| | 同时，选举权允许公民选择自己的代表，是代议制民主的支柱。这项权利确保政府反映社会的多样性和偏好。它还允许公平代表不同的意见和利益，从而确保更具包容性和民主的治理。 |
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| The right to be elected is equally crucial. It guarantees that any individual, subject to meeting certain criteria, can stand as a candidate in an electoral process. This provision fosters an open and dynamic political system, allowing people from diverse backgrounds to contribute to governance. The opportunity for individuals from different backgrounds to stand for election enriches political debate and encourages the inclusion of diverse perspectives.
| | 被选举权同样至关重要。它保证任何个人，只要符合一定的标准，都可以作为候选人参加选举。这一规定促进了开放和充满活力的政治制度，使来自不同背景的人都能为治理做出贡献。来自不同背景的个人有机会参加竞选，这丰富了政治辩论，并鼓励吸纳不同的观点。 |
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| These rights collectively form the bedrock of civic participation in modern democracies. Their protection and promotion are essential to ensure the legitimacy of governments and encourage active civic engagement. They are the guarantee of a society in which political power is not only accessible, but also responsive to the needs and aspirations of the entire population.
| | 这些权利共同构成了现代民主国家公民参与的基石。保护和促进这些权利对于确保政府的合法性和鼓励公民积极参与至关重要。它们是一个社会的保障，在这样的社会中，政治权力不仅可以被利用，而且还能满足全体人民的需求和愿望。 |
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| == Guarantees of the rule of law == | | == 法治保障 == |
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| The guarantees of the rule of law represent a set of essential fundamental principles and rights that frame and limit the action of the State, both in content and form. The central aim of these guarantees is to ensure that the State complies with fundamental rules, thereby protecting individuals against the abuse of power and promoting justice and fairness in society.
| | 法治保障代表着一套基本的基本原则和权利，在内容和形式上都对国家的行动起到框架和限制作用。这些保障的核心目标是确保国家遵守基本规则，从而保护个人免受滥用权力之害，并促进社会的公正和公平。 |
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| The principle of equality is one of the pillars of these guarantees. It obliges the State to treat all citizens equally, prohibiting any form of arbitrariness or discrimination. This principle finds its origins in historical legal documents such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789, which proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law. The principle of equality aims to ensure that the decisions and actions of the State do not favour or disadvantage certain groups or individuals.
| | 平等原则是这些保障的支柱之一。它要求国家平等对待所有公民，禁止任何形式的专断或歧视。这一原则源于历史性的法律文件，如 1789 年的《人权和公民权利宣言》，其中宣布所有公民在法律面前一律平等。平等原则旨在确保国家的决定和行动不偏袒或不利于某些群体或个人。 |
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| In addition to equality, the guarantees of the rule of law also include respect for legality, meaning that all State actions must be based on the law. This principle is essential to prevent the abuse of power, because it obliges governments and their agents to act in accordance with established laws, which are themselves subject to a democratic process of creation and revision.
| | 除平等外，法治的保障还包括尊重合法性，即所有国家行动都必须以法律为依据。这一原则对于防止滥用权力至关重要，因为它要求政府及其代理人按照既定的法律行事，而这些法律本身又必须经过民主的制定和修订过程。 |
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| The separation of powers is another key element in guaranteeing the rule of law. It implies that the different branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial) must be distinct and balanced in order to avoid excessive concentration of power and allow for a system of checks and balances. This separation ensures that the laws are drawn up, applied and interpreted in an equitable and independent manner.
| | 三权分立是保障法治的另一个关键要素。这意味着政府的不同部门（行政、立法和司法）必须相互区别并保持平衡，以避免权力过度集中，并建立制衡制度。这种分立可确保以公平和独立的方式制定、适用和解释法律。 |
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| Finally, the right to a fair trial is a fundamental guarantee of the rule of law. It ensures that anyone accused of an offence has the benefit of due process, access to an independent and impartial court and the opportunity to defend themselves. This right is essential to protect the individual against unfounded accusations and unjust sentences.
| | 最后，公平审判权是法治的基本保障。它确保任何被指控犯罪的人都能受益于正当程序，诉诸独立公正的法庭，并有机会为自己辩护。这项权利对于保护个人免受毫无根据的指控和不公正的判决至关重要。 |
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| These guarantees, by limiting the power of the State and imposing compliance with fundamental rules, are essential for maintaining a fair, equitable and democratic society. They ensure that the State acts responsibly and transparently, respecting the rights and freedoms of every citizen.
| | 这些保障通过限制国家权力和强制遵守基本规则，对于维护一个公正、公平和民主的社会至关重要。它们确保国家以负责任和透明的方式行事，尊重每个公民的权利和自由。 |
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| == Social, economic and cultural rights == | | == 社会、经济和文化权利 == |
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| Social, economic and cultural rights are a fundamental category of human rights that aim to ensure the well-being and fulfilment of the individual in society. Unlike civil and political rights, which primarily protect individuals against abusive action by the state, social, economic and cultural rights require positive action by the state to realise them. These rights cover essential aspects of human life such as work, housing, food, education and access to culture.
| | 社会、经济和文化权利是人权的一个基本类别，旨在确保个人在社会中的福祉和成就。公民权利和政治权利主要保护个人免受国家侵权行为的侵害，而社会、经济和文化权利则不同，需要国家采取积极行动才能实现。这些权利涵盖了人类生活的基本方面，如工作、住房、食物、教育和接触文化的机会。 |
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| The right to work, for example, is not limited to protection against unjustified dismissal, but also implies that the State must create an environment conducive to job creation and the promotion of fair and favourable working conditions. Similarly, the right to housing goes beyond simply prohibiting arbitrary eviction; it requires the State to take measures to ensure the availability of affordable and adequate housing for all.
| | 例如，工作权不仅限于保护人们不被无理解雇，还意味着国家必须创造一个有利于创造就业机会的环境，促进公平和有利的工作条件。同样，住房权不仅仅是禁止任意驱逐，它还要求国家采取措施，确保为所有人提供负担得起的适足住房。 |
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| One of the most significant aspects of these rights is the right to education. To realise this right, it is not enough for the state to refrain from restricting access to education; it must actively organise and provide resources for education. This includes the provision of an accessible and quality education system, from primary education, which must often be compulsory and free, to secondary and higher education.
| | 这些权利中最重要的一个方面是受教育权。要实现这一权利，国家仅不限制受教育的机会是不够的，还必须积极组织教育并提供教育资源。这包括提供可获得的优质教育系统，从通常必须是免费义务教育的初等教育到中等和高等教育。 |
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| In addition, these rights also include the right to social security and assistance. This means that the State must put in place mechanisms to help those in need, whether through financial aid, health services or social housing programmes.
| | 此外，这些权利还包括获得社会保障和援助的权利。这意味着国家必须建立机制，帮助那些需要帮助的人，无论是通过财政援助、医疗服务还是社会住房计划。 |
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| These rights reflect the belief that for full and equitable participation in society, individuals need more than just freedom from state interference; they also require active access to certain essential resources and services. Thus, social, economic and cultural rights represent a commitment by the State to play an active role in facilitating equitable access to the opportunities and resources needed to live a dignified and fulfilling life.
| | 这些权利反映了一种信念，即为了充分和公平地参与社会，个人需要的不仅仅是免受国家干预的自由；他们还需要积极获得某些基本资源和服务。因此，社会、经济和文化权利代表着国家承诺发挥积极作用，促进公平获得过上有尊严和充实生活所需的机会和资源。 |
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| = The three generations of fundamental rights and the stages in their development = | | = 三代基本权利及其发展阶段 = |
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| [[File:Le Barbier Dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo.jpg|thumb|Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Le Barbier, 1789, oil on canvas, 71 x 56 cm, Paris, Musée Carnavalet. The Monarchy, holding the broken chains of Tyranny, and the genius of the Nation, holding the sceptre of Power, surround the declaration.]] | | [[File:Le Barbier Dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo.jpg|thumb|人和公民的权利宣言》，勒巴尔比耶，1789 年，布面油画，71 x 56 厘米，巴黎，卡纳瓦罗博物馆。手持断裂的暴政锁链的君主和手持权力权杖的民族天才围绕着宣言。]] |
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| The evolution of human rights and their various categories is a long and complex process that began in the 18th century. This period was marked by significant philosophical and political developments that laid the foundations for human rights as we know them today.
| | 人权及其各种类别的演变是一个漫长而复杂的过程，始于 18 世纪。这一时期在哲学和政治方面取得了重大进展，为我们今天所了解的人权奠定了基础。 |
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| The rights of the first generation, focusing primarily on individual freedoms, were formulated in response to the abuses of the authoritarian and monarchical regimes of the time. Two historical documents illustrate this first generation of rights particularly well: the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 in France and the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 in the United States. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution, marked a decisive turning point in the conception of human rights. It established principles such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion, equality before the law and the sovereignty of the people. These rights were seen as universal and inalienable, an integral part of the human condition.
| | 第一代人权主要侧重于个人自由，是针对当时专制和君主政体的弊端而制定的。有两份历史文献特别能说明第一代权利：法国 1789 年的《人权和公民权 利宣言》和美国 1776 年的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》。法国大革命期间通过的《人权和公民权利宣言》标志着人权概念的一个决定性转折点。它确立了言论自由、宗教自由、法律面前人人平等和人民主权等原则。这些权利被视为普遍的、不可剥夺的权利，是人类生存条件不可分割的一部分。 |
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| The Virginia Declaration of Rights, adopted a little earlier during the American Revolution, laid similar foundations. It emphasised rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press and the right to a fair trial. This declaration had a major influence on the drafting of the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights. These documents and the ideas they represent had a considerable impact on the subsequent development of human rights. They laid the foundations on which subsequent generations of rights - economic, social, cultural and others - were built. For example, the first generation of rights established the principle that certain freedoms and protections are essential to the dignity and development of the individual, a principle that continues to inform and guide human rights debates around the world.
| | 稍早于美国革命期间通过的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》也奠定了类似的基础。它强调了言论自由、新闻自由和公平审判权等权利。该宣言对《美国宪法》和《权利法案》的起草产生了重大影响。这些文件及其所代表的思想对后来的人权发展产生了相当大的影响。它们为后来的经济、社会、文化和其他权利奠定了基础。例如，第一代权利确立的原则是，某些自由和保护对个人的尊严和发展至关重要，这一原则继续为世界各地的人权辩论提供信息和指导。 |
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| What is expected of the State in terms of human rights is first and foremost respect for individual freedoms and the guarantee of citizens' active participation in the functioning of democracy and its institutions. This expectation is based on the idea that personal freedom and democratic participation are intrinsically linked and essential to a just and equitable society. Respect for individual freedoms means that the state must protect fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion, the right to privacy and the right to a fair trial. These freedoms are essential because they enable individuals to live without fear of oppression or unwarranted interference by the state in their private affairs. They are also fundamental to personal development and fulfilment. At the same time, the participation of individuals in the functioning of democracy is a crucial aspect of democratic governance. This means that citizens must have the opportunity to engage actively in political processes, whether through voting, participating in political parties, engaging in public debate or through other forms of civic activism. Such participation is essential to ensure that governments remain accountable and responsive to the needs and desires of their citizens. In addition, the state's respect for democratic institutions is fundamental. These institutions, such as parliaments, courts and electoral bodies, must function freely and fairly, without interference or manipulation. Their integrity and independence are crucial to maintaining public confidence in the democratic process.
| | 在人权方面，人们对国家的期望首先是尊重个人自由，保障公民积极参与民主及其机构的运作。这种期望基于这样一种思想，即个人自由和民主参与有着内在的联系，对于一个公正和公平的社会是必不可少的。尊重个人自由意味着国家必须保护表达自由、宗教自由、隐私权和公平审判权等基本权利。这些自由至关重要，因为它们使个人能够在生活中不必担心压迫或国家对其私人事务的无理干涉。它们也是个人发展和成就的基础。同时，个人参与民主的运作是民主治理的一个重要方面。这意味着公民必须有机会积极参与政治进程，无论是通过投票、参加政党、参与公共辩论还是通过其他形式的公民活动。这种参与对于确保政府对其公民的需求和愿望负责并做出回应至关重要。此外，国家对民主机构的尊重也至关重要。这些机构，如议会、法院和选举机构，必须自由公正地运作，不受干扰或操纵。它们的完整性和独立性对于保持公众对民主进程的信心至关重要。 |
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| The first generation of human rights, encompassing political freedoms and rights, effectively took shape in the eighteenth century, a period marked by major changes in the conception of the role of the state and the rights of citizens. During this period, human rights began to be understood as a means of granting citizens greater opportunities for choice, action and personal appreciation. The 18th century saw revolutions and important declarations that challenged the traditionally authoritarian role of the state. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France (1789) and the Virginia Declaration of Rights in the United States (1776) are prominent examples of this evolution. These documents emphasised rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion and the right to participate in political life, marking a turning point in the relationship between the state and the individual. In this context, the role of the state was seen primarily in a negative light, i.e. it was expected to refrain from interfering in the lives of individuals. Above all, it was expected not to interfere with personal freedom and to lift the prohibitions that limited individual fulfilment. The underlying idea was that for people to achieve their full potential, they had to enjoy a high degree of freedom from state intervention. This conception of human rights, which focused on limiting the power of the state and protecting individual freedom, laid the foundations for modern democracies. It also paved the way for the further development of human rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, which would require a more proactive approach on the part of the state to guarantee the equality and well-being of all citizens.
| | 第一代人权包括政治自由和权利，在 18 世纪得到了有效的发展，这一时期的特点 是国家作用和公民权利的概念发生了重大变化。在这一时期，人权开始被理解为赋予公民更多选择、行动和个人价值的手段。18 世纪的革命和重要宣言对传统上国家的专制角色提出了挑战。法国的《人权和公民权利宣言》（1789 年）和美国的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》（1776 年）是这一演变的突出例子。这些文件强调了言论自由、宗教自由和参与政治生活的权利，标志着国家与个人之间关系的转折点。在这种情况下，国家的作用主要是从消极的角度来看待的，即国家应避免干涉个人的生活。最重要的是，人们希望国家不要干涉个人自由，取消限制个人成就的禁令。其基本思想是，人们要充分发挥自己的潜能，就必须享有不受国家干预的高度自由。这种注重限制国家权力和保护个人自由的人权观念为现代民主奠定了基础。它还为人权的进一步发展铺平了道路，包括经济、社会和文化权利，这些权利需要国家采取更加积极主动的方式来保障所有公民的平等和福祉。 |
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| The second generation of human rights, focusing on social, economic and cultural rights, emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, marking a significant shift in the perception of the role of the state in guaranteeing human rights. This period witnessed profound changes due to the Industrial Revolution, social movements and the emergence of political and economic theories that challenged existing social and economic structures. Unlike first-generation rights, which focused on the protection of individual freedoms and primarily required the state to adopt an attitude of non-interference, second-generation rights require the state to intervene actively. These rights recognise that the mere absence of barriers is not enough to guarantee real equality, and that if all individuals are to benefit fully from the progress of society, the State must play a more direct and substantial role. This means that the state must not only protect but also facilitate access to essential services such as education, health and social welfare. For example, the organisation of public schools to ensure education for all, the establishment of public health systems to guarantee access to care, and the development of social assistance programmes to support those in need, are concrete manifestations of these rights.
| | 以社会、经济和文化权利为重点的第二代人权出现在 19 世纪末和 20 世纪初，标志着人们对国家在保障人权方面作用的认识发生了重大转变。工业革命、社会运动以及对现有社会和经济结构提出挑战的政治和经济理论的出现，使这一时期发生了深刻的变化。第一代权利侧重于保护个人自由，主要要求国家采取不干涉的态度，与此不同的是，第二代权利要求国家积极干预。这些权利认识到，仅仅没有障碍还不足以保障真正的平等，如果要使所有个人都能从社会进步中充分受益，国家就必须发挥更直接、更实质性的作用。这就意味着，国家不仅要保护，还要为获得教育、医疗和社会福利等基本服务提供便利。例如，组织公立学校以确保全民教育，建立公共卫生系统以保障获得医疗服务，以及制定社会援助计划以支持有需要的人，都是这些权利的具体体现。 |
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| The adoption of these rights was influenced by various ideologies and movements, including socialism and the labour movement, which highlighted the inequalities and injustices created by industrial capitalism. In response, many governments began to incorporate more progressive social and economic policies into their legislation. Thus, with the second generation of rights, the state is no longer simply a guardian of individual freedoms, but also becomes an active player in promoting the well-being and equality of its citizens. This development marks an important step in the recognition that human rights encompass not only freedom from oppression, but also the right to a decent standard of living and to social and cultural fulfilment.
| | 这些权利的采纳受到了各种意识形态和运动的影响，包括社会主义和劳工运动，它们强调了工业资本主义造成的不平等和不公正。作为回应，许多国家的政府开始将更进步的社会和经济政策纳入其立法。因此，随着第二代权利的出现，国家不再仅仅是个人自由的守护者，还成为促进公民福祉和平等的积极参与者。这一发展标志着在承认人权不仅包括免受压迫的自由，还包括享有体面的生活水准以及社会和文化成就的权利方面迈出了重要的一步。 |
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| The emergence of third-generation fundamental rights, often referred to as "solidarity rights", marks a new stage in the evolution of human rights after the Second World War. This generation of rights reflects a growing awareness of the global challenges and responsibilities shared by humanity. Solidarity rights include the right to peace, development, a healthy environment, the common heritage of mankind and information. Unlike first- and second-generation rights, which focus on individual freedoms and social, economic and cultural rights respectively, third-generation rights are characterised by their collective and transnational nature. They recognise that certain issues, such as environmental protection, sustainable development and world peace, transcend national borders and require international cooperation and action. Although these rights are still in their infancy and often considered to have less legal force than first- and second-generation rights, they are gradually gaining recognition and influence. For example, the right to a healthy environment has begun to be incorporated into certain constitutional texts and international treaties, reflecting a growing global awareness of the importance of environmental sustainability.
| | 第三代基本权利（通常被称为 "团结权"）的出现标志着第二次世界大战后人权发展进入了一个新阶段。这一代权利反映了人们对全球挑战和人类共同责任的日益认识。团结权包括和平权、发展权、健康环境权、人类共同遗产权和知情权。第一代和第二代权利分别侧重于个人自由以及社会、经济和文化权利，与此不同，第三代权利的特点是其集体性和跨国性。它们承认某些问题，如环境保护、可持续发展和世界和平，是超越国界的，需要国际合作和行动。尽管这些权利仍处于萌芽阶段，通常被认为不如第一代和第二代权利具有法律效力，但它们正逐渐获得认可并产生影响。例如，享有健康环境的权利已开始被纳入某些宪法文本和国际条约，反映出全球对环境可持续性重要性的认识在不断提高。 |
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| These third-generation rights, although in many cases still at the claim stage, underline the evolving understanding of human rights. They highlight the fact that global issues such as climate change, unequal development and world peace have a direct impact on the well-being and rights of individuals. By recognising these rights, the international community acknowledges that the challenges of the 21st century require solutions that go beyond national frameworks and imply collective responsibility and action. Thus, although they have not yet achieved the same legal status as first- and second-generation rights, third-generation rights are shaping the global discourse on human rights and are likely to find a more assertive place in positive law in the future.
| | 这些第三代权利，尽管在许多情况下仍处于主张阶段，但强调了对人权的理解在不断发展。它们强调了一个事实，即气候变化、不平等发展和世界和平等全球性问题对个人的福祉和权利有着直接影响。通过承认这些权利，国际社会认识到，21 世纪的挑战需要超越国家框架的解决办 法，这意味着集体责任和行动。因此，尽管第三代权利尚未取得与第一代和第二代权利相同的法律地位，但它们正在影响着全球关于人权的讨论，并有可能在未来的实在法中占据更重要的地位。 |
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| The evolution of fundamental rights has followed a remarkable path from their initial development at national level to their recognition and institutionalisation at international and regional level. The genesis of these rights can be traced back to the mid-eighteenth century, a period marked by philosophical and political movements that challenged existing power structures and called for the recognition of the fundamental rights of the individual. This period saw the adoption of founding documents such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France (1789) and the Declaration of Independence in the United States (1776), which established the principles of civil and political rights. However, it was in the mid-twentieth century, after the horrors of the Second World War, that recognition of human rights truly took on an international dimension. In response to the atrocities of war, the nations of the world came together to proclaim the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 10 December 1948. This document, although not binding, established a moral and ethical framework for human rights and influenced many subsequent international treaties and national constitutions.
| | 基本权利从最初在国家层面发展到在国际和地区层面得到承认和制度化，其演变经历了一条不寻常的道路。这些权利的起源可以追溯到十八世纪中叶，这一时期的哲学和政治运动对现有的权力结构提出了挑战，并呼吁承认个人的基本权利。在这一时期，法国通过了《人权和公民权利宣言》（1789 年），美国通过了《独立宣言》（1776 年）等建国文件，确立了公民权利和政治权利的原则。然而，到了二十世纪中叶，在第二次世界大战的恐怖之后，对人权的承认才真正具有了国际意义。为了应对战争暴行，世界各国于 1948 年 12 月 10 日共同发表了《世界人权宣言》。这份文件虽然不具有约束力，但却为人权确立了一个道德和伦理框架，并对随后的许多国际条约和国家宪法产生了影响。 |
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| At European level, the European Convention on Human Rights, which was signed on 4 November 1950 and came into force in 1953, was a milestone. It not only codified a set of rights and freedoms, but also established the European Court of Human Rights to ensure that these rights were respected by Member States. The Convention has played a crucial role in the protection of human rights in Europe, providing a legal mechanism for their protection and enforcement. These developments illustrate a growing trend towards the recognition and protection of human rights beyond national borders, recognising that these rights are universal and inalienable. They also underline the crucial role of international and regional organisations in promoting and protecting human rights worldwide.
| | 在欧洲层面，1950 年 11 月 4 日签署并于 1953 年生效的《欧洲人权公约》是一个里程碑。它不仅编纂了一系列权利和自由，还设立了欧洲人权法院，以确保成员国尊重这些权利。该公约在欧洲保护人权方面发挥了至关重要的作用，为保护和落实人权提供了法律机制。这些发展表明，承认和保护人权超越国界的趋势日益明显，承认这些权利具有普遍性和不可剥夺性。它们还强调了国际和地区组织在全世界促进和保护人权方面的关键作用。 |
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| = Annexes = | | = 附录 = |
| *[[Déclaration de Virginie]] : étude de texte | | *[[Déclaration de Virginie]] : étude de texte |
| **[http://www.gunstonhall.org/georgemason/human_rights/vdr_final.html version originale] | | **[http://www.gunstonhall.org/georgemason/human_rights/vdr_final.html version originale] |
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| * [http://www.droits-enfant.org/normes/declaration-universelle-droits-homme-1948/ Présentation de la Déclaration universelle des Droits de l'Homme] sur le Portail des droits de l'enfant | | * [http://www.droits-enfant.org/normes/declaration-universelle-droits-homme-1948/ Présentation de la Déclaration universelle des Droits de l'Homme] sur le Portail des droits de l'enfant |
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| = References = | | = 参考资料 = |
| <references/> | | <references/> |
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| [[Category:droit]] | | [[Category:droit]] |
| [[Category:Victor Monnier]] | | [[Category:Victor Monnier]] |
根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]
基本权利以前在 18 世纪被称为 "自然权利"，随着时间的推移已经发生了重大变 化。从历史上看，这些权利被认为是人类生存所固有的、普遍的和不可剥夺的。约翰-洛克和让-雅克-卢梭等哲学家为这些权利的概念化做出了巨大贡献。例如，洛克在 1689 年出版的著作《政府论》中捍卫了生命权、自由权和财产权等自然权利，而卢梭则在 1762 年出版的《社会契约论》中强调了普遍意志和人民主权的重要性。
当时，自然权利被视为普遍的道德原则，不依赖于立法或国家的承认。然而，随着法国大革命和美国《独立宣言》的发表，这些权利开始正式写入法律文件。1789 年法国的《人权和公民权利宣言》是一个重要的转折点，它确认了言论自由、宗教自由和法律面前人人平等等权利。
随着时间的推移，对人权的理解和应用已从哲学角度发展到实际和具有法律约束力的应用。这一转变具体表现为基本权利逐渐被纳入国家宪法和法律。例如，《瑞士联邦宪法》承认并保护一系列基本权利，表明了现代法律框架对这些权利的重视。它不仅保障传统的公民自由和政治自由，而且还保障经济、社会和文化权利，这反映了人权概念在其最初概念之外的扩展。
国家在承认和保护基本权利方面的作用变得至关重要。将这些权利纳入国家立法，使建立保障其实施和尊重的法律机制成为可能。因此，尽管基本权利植根于普遍的和不可剥夺的原则，但现在主要是由各国的法律 框架来界定和保护的。这一发展反映了社会将这些哲学概念制度化的方式，承认它们在保护和尊重个人方面的根本重要性。
在基本权利方面，自由在保护和促进个人生存的各个方面发挥着重要作用。它们涉及广泛的行为和活动，为每个人在生活的各个领域实现自己的愿望、做出选择和开展活动提供了空间。
这些自由包括身体和精神两个方面。例如，迁徙自由作为一项基本权利，允许个人在国内自由迁徙和出国旅行。这种自由不仅对个人活动至关重要，而且对职业原因也很重要，例如商人或企业家需要迁徙以发展其业务。从心理学角度讲，这些自由包括言论自由以及思想、良心和宗教自由等权利。这些自由使个人能够表达自己的观点、信奉自己的宗教或遵循自己的信仰，而不必担心受到审查或压制。例如，言论自由是民主社会的根本，因为它支持公开辩论、批评政府和交流思想。此外，个人自由还包括隐私权，保护个人生活中的个人和家庭生活免受不必要的侵扰。在数字时代，这种自由越来越重要，保护个人数据已成为人们关注的主要问题。
基本自由对个人发展和自主至关重要。它们使个人能够追求自己的目标、表达自己的个性并充分参与社会。这些权利受到《世界人权宣言》等各种国际法律文书以及各国宪法和法律的保护。保护和促进这些自由对于维护一个尊重每个人权利的开放、充满活力的社会至关重要。
政治权利对民主的运作至关重要，它赋予公民积极参与公共事务管理的能力。这些权利植根于法律制度，反映了公民影响社会政治方向的能力。
投票权是这些特权的核心。无论是通过选举还是全民公决，投票权都为个人提供了就如何治理国家表达意见的直接途径。投票权的历史充满了争取包容的重大斗争。例如，20 世纪初兴起的女权运动在扩大妇女投票权方面发挥了重要作用，这在许多国家都是一个重要的里程碑，如英国通过了 1918 年法案，美国在 1920 年通过了第 19 次修正案。
同时，选举权允许公民选择自己的代表，是代议制民主的支柱。这项权利确保政府反映社会的多样性和偏好。它还允许公平代表不同的意见和利益，从而确保更具包容性和民主的治理。
被选举权同样至关重要。它保证任何个人，只要符合一定的标准，都可以作为候选人参加选举。这一规定促进了开放和充满活力的政治制度，使来自不同背景的人都能为治理做出贡献。来自不同背景的个人有机会参加竞选，这丰富了政治辩论，并鼓励吸纳不同的观点。
这些权利共同构成了现代民主国家公民参与的基石。保护和促进这些权利对于确保政府的合法性和鼓励公民积极参与至关重要。它们是一个社会的保障，在这样的社会中，政治权力不仅可以被利用，而且还能满足全体人民的需求和愿望。
法治保障代表着一套基本的基本原则和权利，在内容和形式上都对国家的行动起到框架和限制作用。这些保障的核心目标是确保国家遵守基本规则，从而保护个人免受滥用权力之害，并促进社会的公正和公平。
平等原则是这些保障的支柱之一。它要求国家平等对待所有公民，禁止任何形式的专断或歧视。这一原则源于历史性的法律文件，如 1789 年的《人权和公民权利宣言》，其中宣布所有公民在法律面前一律平等。平等原则旨在确保国家的决定和行动不偏袒或不利于某些群体或个人。
除平等外，法治的保障还包括尊重合法性，即所有国家行动都必须以法律为依据。这一原则对于防止滥用权力至关重要，因为它要求政府及其代理人按照既定的法律行事，而这些法律本身又必须经过民主的制定和修订过程。
三权分立是保障法治的另一个关键要素。这意味着政府的不同部门（行政、立法和司法）必须相互区别并保持平衡，以避免权力过度集中，并建立制衡制度。这种分立可确保以公平和独立的方式制定、适用和解释法律。
最后，公平审判权是法治的基本保障。它确保任何被指控犯罪的人都能受益于正当程序，诉诸独立公正的法庭，并有机会为自己辩护。这项权利对于保护个人免受毫无根据的指控和不公正的判决至关重要。
这些保障通过限制国家权力和强制遵守基本规则，对于维护一个公正、公平和民主的社会至关重要。它们确保国家以负责任和透明的方式行事，尊重每个公民的权利和自由。
社会、经济和文化权利是人权的一个基本类别，旨在确保个人在社会中的福祉和成就。公民权利和政治权利主要保护个人免受国家侵权行为的侵害，而社会、经济和文化权利则不同，需要国家采取积极行动才能实现。这些权利涵盖了人类生活的基本方面，如工作、住房、食物、教育和接触文化的机会。
例如，工作权不仅限于保护人们不被无理解雇，还意味着国家必须创造一个有利于创造就业机会的环境，促进公平和有利的工作条件。同样，住房权不仅仅是禁止任意驱逐，它还要求国家采取措施，确保为所有人提供负担得起的适足住房。
这些权利中最重要的一个方面是受教育权。要实现这一权利，国家仅不限制受教育的机会是不够的，还必须积极组织教育并提供教育资源。这包括提供可获得的优质教育系统，从通常必须是免费义务教育的初等教育到中等和高等教育。
此外，这些权利还包括获得社会保障和援助的权利。这意味着国家必须建立机制，帮助那些需要帮助的人，无论是通过财政援助、医疗服务还是社会住房计划。
这些权利反映了一种信念，即为了充分和公平地参与社会，个人需要的不仅仅是免受国家干预的自由；他们还需要积极获得某些基本资源和服务。因此，社会、经济和文化权利代表着国家承诺发挥积极作用，促进公平获得过上有尊严和充实生活所需的机会和资源。
人和公民的权利宣言》，勒巴尔比耶，1789 年，布面油画，71 x 56 厘米，巴黎，卡纳瓦罗博物馆。手持断裂的暴政锁链的君主和手持权力权杖的民族天才围绕着宣言。
人权及其各种类别的演变是一个漫长而复杂的过程，始于 18 世纪。这一时期在哲学和政治方面取得了重大进展，为我们今天所了解的人权奠定了基础。
第一代人权主要侧重于个人自由，是针对当时专制和君主政体的弊端而制定的。有两份历史文献特别能说明第一代权利：法国 1789 年的《人权和公民权 利宣言》和美国 1776 年的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》。法国大革命期间通过的《人权和公民权利宣言》标志着人权概念的一个决定性转折点。它确立了言论自由、宗教自由、法律面前人人平等和人民主权等原则。这些权利被视为普遍的、不可剥夺的权利，是人类生存条件不可分割的一部分。
稍早于美国革命期间通过的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》也奠定了类似的基础。它强调了言论自由、新闻自由和公平审判权等权利。该宣言对《美国宪法》和《权利法案》的起草产生了重大影响。这些文件及其所代表的思想对后来的人权发展产生了相当大的影响。它们为后来的经济、社会、文化和其他权利奠定了基础。例如，第一代权利确立的原则是，某些自由和保护对个人的尊严和发展至关重要，这一原则继续为世界各地的人权辩论提供信息和指导。
在人权方面，人们对国家的期望首先是尊重个人自由，保障公民积极参与民主及其机构的运作。这种期望基于这样一种思想，即个人自由和民主参与有着内在的联系，对于一个公正和公平的社会是必不可少的。尊重个人自由意味着国家必须保护表达自由、宗教自由、隐私权和公平审判权等基本权利。这些自由至关重要，因为它们使个人能够在生活中不必担心压迫或国家对其私人事务的无理干涉。它们也是个人发展和成就的基础。同时，个人参与民主的运作是民主治理的一个重要方面。这意味着公民必须有机会积极参与政治进程，无论是通过投票、参加政党、参与公共辩论还是通过其他形式的公民活动。这种参与对于确保政府对其公民的需求和愿望负责并做出回应至关重要。此外，国家对民主机构的尊重也至关重要。这些机构，如议会、法院和选举机构，必须自由公正地运作，不受干扰或操纵。它们的完整性和独立性对于保持公众对民主进程的信心至关重要。
第一代人权包括政治自由和权利，在 18 世纪得到了有效的发展，这一时期的特点 是国家作用和公民权利的概念发生了重大变化。在这一时期，人权开始被理解为赋予公民更多选择、行动和个人价值的手段。18 世纪的革命和重要宣言对传统上国家的专制角色提出了挑战。法国的《人权和公民权利宣言》（1789 年）和美国的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》（1776 年）是这一演变的突出例子。这些文件强调了言论自由、宗教自由和参与政治生活的权利，标志着国家与个人之间关系的转折点。在这种情况下，国家的作用主要是从消极的角度来看待的，即国家应避免干涉个人的生活。最重要的是，人们希望国家不要干涉个人自由，取消限制个人成就的禁令。其基本思想是，人们要充分发挥自己的潜能，就必须享有不受国家干预的高度自由。这种注重限制国家权力和保护个人自由的人权观念为现代民主奠定了基础。它还为人权的进一步发展铺平了道路，包括经济、社会和文化权利，这些权利需要国家采取更加积极主动的方式来保障所有公民的平等和福祉。
以社会、经济和文化权利为重点的第二代人权出现在 19 世纪末和 20 世纪初，标志着人们对国家在保障人权方面作用的认识发生了重大转变。工业革命、社会运动以及对现有社会和经济结构提出挑战的政治和经济理论的出现，使这一时期发生了深刻的变化。第一代权利侧重于保护个人自由，主要要求国家采取不干涉的态度，与此不同的是，第二代权利要求国家积极干预。这些权利认识到，仅仅没有障碍还不足以保障真正的平等，如果要使所有个人都能从社会进步中充分受益，国家就必须发挥更直接、更实质性的作用。这就意味着，国家不仅要保护，还要为获得教育、医疗和社会福利等基本服务提供便利。例如，组织公立学校以确保全民教育，建立公共卫生系统以保障获得医疗服务，以及制定社会援助计划以支持有需要的人，都是这些权利的具体体现。
这些权利的采纳受到了各种意识形态和运动的影响，包括社会主义和劳工运动，它们强调了工业资本主义造成的不平等和不公正。作为回应，许多国家的政府开始将更进步的社会和经济政策纳入其立法。因此，随着第二代权利的出现，国家不再仅仅是个人自由的守护者，还成为促进公民福祉和平等的积极参与者。这一发展标志着在承认人权不仅包括免受压迫的自由，还包括享有体面的生活水准以及社会和文化成就的权利方面迈出了重要的一步。
第三代基本权利（通常被称为 "团结权"）的出现标志着第二次世界大战后人权发展进入了一个新阶段。这一代权利反映了人们对全球挑战和人类共同责任的日益认识。团结权包括和平权、发展权、健康环境权、人类共同遗产权和知情权。第一代和第二代权利分别侧重于个人自由以及社会、经济和文化权利，与此不同，第三代权利的特点是其集体性和跨国性。它们承认某些问题，如环境保护、可持续发展和世界和平，是超越国界的，需要国际合作和行动。尽管这些权利仍处于萌芽阶段，通常被认为不如第一代和第二代权利具有法律效力，但它们正逐渐获得认可并产生影响。例如，享有健康环境的权利已开始被纳入某些宪法文本和国际条约，反映出全球对环境可持续性重要性的认识在不断提高。
这些第三代权利，尽管在许多情况下仍处于主张阶段，但强调了对人权的理解在不断发展。它们强调了一个事实，即气候变化、不平等发展和世界和平等全球性问题对个人的福祉和权利有着直接影响。通过承认这些权利，国际社会认识到，21 世纪的挑战需要超越国家框架的解决办 法，这意味着集体责任和行动。因此，尽管第三代权利尚未取得与第一代和第二代权利相同的法律地位，但它们正在影响着全球关于人权的讨论，并有可能在未来的实在法中占据更重要的地位。
基本权利从最初在国家层面发展到在国际和地区层面得到承认和制度化，其演变经历了一条不寻常的道路。这些权利的起源可以追溯到十八世纪中叶，这一时期的哲学和政治运动对现有的权力结构提出了挑战，并呼吁承认个人的基本权利。在这一时期，法国通过了《人权和公民权利宣言》（1789 年），美国通过了《独立宣言》（1776 年）等建国文件，确立了公民权利和政治权利的原则。然而，到了二十世纪中叶，在第二次世界大战的恐怖之后，对人权的承认才真正具有了国际意义。为了应对战争暴行，世界各国于 1948 年 12 月 10 日共同发表了《世界人权宣言》。这份文件虽然不具有约束力，但却为人权确立了一个道德和伦理框架，并对随后的许多国际条约和国家宪法产生了影响。
在欧洲层面，1950 年 11 月 4 日签署并于 1953 年生效的《欧洲人权公约》是一个里程碑。它不仅编纂了一系列权利和自由，还设立了欧洲人权法院，以确保成员国尊重这些权利。该公约在欧洲保护人权方面发挥了至关重要的作用，为保护和落实人权提供了法律机制。这些发展表明，承认和保护人权超越国界的趋势日益明显，承认这些权利具有普遍性和不可剥夺性。它们还强调了国际和地区组织在全世界促进和保护人权方面的关键作用。
