Version actuelle datée du 18 décembre 2020 à 16:01

The foundations of the Roman model

Vexillum avec l'aigle et le sigle de l'État romain.

Données clés
Professeur(s)	Alexis Keller^[1]^[2]^[3]
Cours	History of legal and political thought: the concept of empire from its origins to the present day

Lectures

The Roman Empire is not the first empire chronologically speaking, but it is perhaps the empire that has most marked and influenced Western political and legal thought. Rome has haunted all Western thought about empire, justifying starting with Rome rather than Egypt, China or the Persian Empire.

The Roman imperial regime did not create the empire as such. Although the Roman imperial regime officially came into being in 27 BC, the Roman imperial model already existed territorially and geographically before the creation of the Roman Empire. Rome becomes an empire constitutionally speaking in 27 BC, but Rome already behaves as an empire with a vast territory long before the formal creation of the Roman Empire. Generally speaking, historians agree that the Roman imperial model begins in 300 BC when Rome tries to establish a protective glacis from the barbarians. The Roman Republic expanded territorially to the point that it needed to create safe areas to protect itself. The establishment of these safe outposts is dated to this period.

In the 2nd century B.C., the Roman Republic is no longer in a security logic, but in an expansionist logic: Rome decides to conquer the world. The Roman conquest was accompanied by the Hellenisation of the Romans because Greece was THE civilisation of antiquity. It is interesting to see that when the Romans conquered Greece, this great civilisation of antiquity, they very quickly developed a complex of political and military superiority over the Greeks, but cultural inferiority. This shows the syncretistic dimension of the Roman Empire, the dimension imprinted on Greek culture. The Greeks have always been despised by the Romans while secretly admiring them.

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The legal foundations of the Roman imperial model[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The eagle, symbol of many Western empires, but also Eastern (here that of the Byzantine Empire).

What are the legal foundations of the Roman imperial model?

The Roman Empire, from 27 B.C. onwards, is a set of immense territories around the Mediterranean reunited under the supreme power of the Emperor. This empire was extremely extensive in terms of territory. Outposts of legionary camps guard the borders of the empire. The power of the empire is embodied by the Emperor who is basically the first magistrate of Rome called Caesar or Augustus. Otherwise he is called "Imperator", "Dominus" or "Pater".

The Roman Empire has never had a constitution in the formal sense, the absolutism of emperors has been increasing, there is no constitution that defines the prerogatives or the limits of power. A number of official texts make it possible to understand what the emperor's ideology and legal foundations were. The powers of the emperor are basically based on a number of criteria and the emperor holds four attributes.

Potestas[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Generally speaking, in Roman times, "potestas" meant the authority recognised by the law of one person over another. It is the power held by the first magistrate of the Republic, i.e. the Emperor. Originally the potestas were held by the magistrates of the Republic. The birth of the imperial regime allowed the Emperor to regain power for himself. The influence of private law on public law can be seen in the emperor's recovery of this right.

The emperor has the means to exercise a power of constraint and to ensure the observance of laws :

the "edictum" [1] which is the equivalent of a directive,
the "decretum" [2] which is the competence to give judgment,
the "imperial letter" [3] giving the emperor the possibility to give written instructions that make the emperor the centre of power.

Imperium[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Imperium refers to the possibility of governing conquered territories. The power of the imperium contains at least four competencies. The holder of the imperium is :

the commander-in-chief of the troops [1].
who signs or revokes treaties [2],
he convenes the Senate or the legislative power [3],
he is the only one with the competence to extend Roman jurisdiction [4], i.e. to decide where Roman law applies and does not apply.

The Roman Empire was able to combine the rules of Rome with local customs, succeeding in "managing the diversity" of cultures and peoples under its control.

Tribunician power - potestas tribunicia[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Portrait of the Emperor Augustus.

The emperor is the holder of the tribudian power. It was created by Augustus who was the first emperor to recover the power of the tribune. It is an interesting power because it gave the tribunals the competence of "proibicio", that is to say, to block laws of the Senate that were against either the interest of the army or the interest of Rome.

Augustus will recover this power by abolishing this competence to the tribunals and recover it, it is henceforth the emperor who has the competence and the right of "proibicio".

Auctoritas[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Auctoritas is a notion linked to a notion of personal prestige. The person who benefits from it during the Roman Empire is a person with moral authority. The person who must first and foremost be the depositary is the emperor. It is not known how the Senate decides whether the emperor has the auctoritas or not, however, it is an essential attribute. It is thought today that the moral authority of emperors was symbolically voted by the Senate. There is a procedure which the emperor must follow, which is the act of denial of power. The emperor is obliged to put his power back into play every year, and it is thought that the auctoritas was voted on at that time.

The attributes of the emperor constituting the Roman imperial model[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

These four fundamental attributes are the attributes of the emperor and are constitutive of the Roman imperial model. It is possible to imagine that the emperor had exceptionally extensive powers. If it is true that the emperor is the first magistrate of the Empire and it is true that the emperor has important power, he has obligations :

the emperor has the obligation to seek consensus, i.e. "concordia" which is unity or adhesion. Of course, he has the right to "proibicio", but he cannot ignore it and impose a measure. This is an imperial obligation respected by all emperors.
the emperor must comply with the act of refusing power: every year the Senate votes for the re-election of the emperor.
the emperor has the obligation to guarantee, protect and respect the "libertas" which is a central value of the philosophy of Roman law. Roman citizens can enjoy their property in safety and their rights in freedom. Being citizens of Rome is the passport to freedom in the Empire.
the emperor has the obligation to consult the "concilium principis" which consists exclusively of jurists, the emperor's legal council. From the 3rd century BC onwards, the emperor has the supreme power to request legal advice from the concilium principis.

An imperial model is emerging which gives the emperor significant powers, but these powers are counterbalanced by significant obligations.

Vercingetorix lays down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar at the end of the siege of Alesia. Painting by Lionel Royer, 1899.

Beyond the legal, political or moral attributions, the emperor in the Roman model enjoys an authentic imperial mystique. The emperor's power is increased by mythology. When Augustus became emperor, he understood the symbolic dimension of power. The Roman Empire model is built on the idea that symbolism is just as important as power. Power has an objective dimension with the law, but also a subjective dimension which is the imperial symbolic. There are two ways:

the use of military victory in imperial ideology: it is very important for the Roman emperor to be perceived by the people as the victorious military. Rome loves neither the weak nor the losers, victory is crucial, but it must be exploited. The first means constituting imperial mythology is the use of military victory over conquered peoples. The reasoning of all emperors is to say that it is because the gods wanted it to give a sacred dimension to power. It is implied that the supreme magistrate holds his power from the gods. The emperor bases his power on a theology of victory.
The sacralization of his own person by imperial worship: the Senate votes to establish a cult of "consecratio" in the name of an emperor who has just died. Any emperor who has just died is submitted to a debate in the Senate, which decrees by law whether, on what day, what week should be dedicated to the worship of the emperor. All emperors have had at heart to have a name that generates a cult.

The territory of the Roman Empire is immense, organised into provinces and it is limited by the so-called "limes" which is the border of the territory. The Roman border of the Roman Empire is called the "file" and the function of the border is extremely important in order to understand the Roman imperial model. The Roman Empire was built in an inclusive and exclusive way. Either one was inside or outside the empire, a member of an empire or on the other side of the border where the barbarians were. This almost binary Roman ideology - barbarian, inclusive - exclusive - was to have a strong influence on the imperial conceptions that were to emerge later. This "we" will distinguish between "civilised men" and "uncivilised men".

The idea of the Roman Empire was based on an emperor, but above all on the idea of a strong central power embodied in the person of the emperor. The emperor had a number of competences and prerogatives surrounded by an imperial cult with a form of sacralization of his person. The notion of frontier was extremely important in the Roman Empire both geographically, politically, militarily, but also ideologically, as it defined those who were within the empire and those who were outside the empire. The binary notion of free man - slave man is an ancient idea that we owe to the Romans irrigating the idea of the Western Empire.

The features of the Roman Empire[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The Roman Empire is based on four characteristics :

The Roman idea of empire is conservative because it is a question of preserving the past and from this point of view, the Roman Empire never proclaimed its break with the Roman Republic. There is an obsession to stay in touch and in symbiosis with the past. In a way, there is an almost sacred cult for the Romans. It is a polytheistic society where the gods have an important social function. It is about preserving the rites, the customs of the past and the idea of a united territory around a city that is Rome.
It is an authoritarian empire: the emperor has extremely important legal, political and moral powers. Moreover, he rules by the will of the gods.
It is a progressive empire: there are two tendencies, progressive because legally speaking, the Roman Empire enshrines Roman law as the law of the Roman Empire, it is a progressive and successful law. Roman law is the law of the Empire and the language of the Empire is also Latin, which is the official language of the Empire. Unification through language and law makes it also a progressive empire looking to the future. The great strength of the Roman Empire is to have Romanised all the Roman elites. All the peripheral peoples were Romanised in their habits and customs. At the present time, there is talk of the Americanisation of certain societies, at the time we can speak of the Romanisation of the Roman Empire.
It is a liberal empire: the Roman Empire has always sought to respect the freedom and beliefs of the conquered peoples. There is not at all among the Romans any willingness and/or any form of proselytism. The Roman Empire has never sought to convert the conquered peoples, it is not a logic of proselytism of the two great monotheistic relics. Fundamentally, the Roman Empire did not seek to convert and change beliefs. From this point of view, the Romans showed immense tolerance accepting the religious rites of all conquered peoples. In other words, the Roman Empire was tolerant and enshrined the principle of diversity in imperial ideology. The empire at its height was a "multi-ethnic" empire, encompassing diverse populations, languages and customs. The Romans, extremely violent in war, never sought to convert or to annihilate and destroy the cultures of the peoples they had under their military rule.

Bust of Vespasien.

In the "Vespasian Imperium Law" the terms "imperium" and "potestas" are used. In particular, the holder of the imperium has the possibility of concluding treaties.

« Let him be allowed to conclude treaties with whomever he wishes, as was permitted to the divine Augustus, Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
That he may be allowed to assemble the Senate, to make or cause to be made proposals, to have sénatus-consultes rendered by individual votes, or by ordering the division, as was permitted to the divine Augustus, to Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, to Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
Whenever the Senate is assembled by virtue of its will, authorisation, order, mandate, or in its presence, all its acts shall have their force, and shall be observed, as well as if it were summoned or required by law;
Whenever the aspirants to any magistracy, power, command, or office whatsoever, shall be the Roman, and he shall have given or promised his support to them, that in all comices their candidacy shall be counted extraordinarily; »

The emperor has the power to elect magistrates. These four lines are fundamental because they describe the emperor's prerogatives, which are extensive.

« May he be allowed, whenever he finds it useful to the Republic, to extend and push back the limits of the Pomoerium, as was allowed to Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ;
That he has the right and the full power to do whatever he thinks fit in the interest of the Republic, in the majesty of divine" and human things, in the public and private good, as was allowed to the divine Augustus, Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; »

A fragment of the "Res Gestae".

In "'Res Gestae Divi Augusti", the emperor has potestas and autoritas but he is the equal of the magistrates. Augustus who was the first emperor considered himself an equal Roman citizen of the others.

« 31.1.-3 – In my sixth and seventh consulates, after I had extinguished the flames of the civil wars, with the assent of all the absolute control of affairs, I transferred the res publica of my potestat to the will of the senate and of the Roman people ... after that time I prevailed over all by the "autoritas", but of potestas I was no more than the others who were, to me too, my colleagues in the magistracy. »

The imperial power will concentrate and drift authoritatively after Augustus.

« 8.5 – Through new laws passed on my initiative, I have restored many of the traditions of our ancestors that had fallen into disuse in our time, and in many respects I have provided examples for posterity to emulate. »

We see two things here, the conservative dimension and the fact that he wanted to imitate for posterity. There is the idea of restoring the past in order to ensure it and preserve it for posterity. The conservative conception of empire is defended here by Augustus.

This Roman empire, of course, will not die out with its fall. In other words, the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. in no way signifies the end of the idea of the Roman Empire and especially the end of the Empire in general. On the contrary, the idea of empire would survive in Rome and throughout medieval Europe, as evidenced by two great empires, the Carolingian Empire and, above all, the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire in 962, which is said to have inherited the notion of Empire. The institutional fall of Rome does not mean the end of the idea of empire based on a number of characteristics. Throughout the Middle Ages, this idea of empire basically survived, being taken up in two institutions. Firstly among the Germanic peoples and finally in the Roman Church. After the fall of Rome, the Roman idea of empire took two directions. Somewhere, it was taken up by the Holy Roman Empire and then by the Roman Catholic Church.

How did the Germanic peoples transform the idea of empire into the Holy Roman Empire?

Annexes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Lesuisse Léon. La clause transitoire de la “Lex de imperio Vespasiani”. In: Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire. Tome 40 fasc. 1, 1962. pp. 51-75.
Merlin A.. À propos de l’extension du Pomerium par Vespasien. In: Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire T. 21, 1901. pp. 97-115.
» Res Gestae Divi Augusti (Trad. Française). <http://droitromain.upmf-grenoble.fr/Francogallica/resgest_fran.htm>.

References[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

[1] Alexis Keller - Wikipedia

[2] Alexis Keller - Faculté de droit - UNIGE

[3] Alexis Keller | International Center for Transitional Justice

[1]

[2]

[3]

@@ Ligne 18 : / Ligne 18 : @@
 }}
-L’Empire romain n’est pas le premier empire chronologiquement parlant, mais c’est peut être l’empire qui a le plus marqué et influencé la pensée politique et juridique occidentale. Rome a hanté toute la pensée occidentale sur l’empire justifiant que l’on commence avec Rome plutôt qu’avec l’Égypte, la Chine ou l’Empire perse.
+The Roman Empire is not the first empire chronologically speaking, but it is perhaps the empire that has most marked and influenced Western political and legal thought. Rome has haunted all Western thought about empire, justifying starting with Rome rather than Egypt, China or the Persian Empire.
-Le régime impérial romain n’a pas créé l’empire à proprement dit. Si le régime impérial romain né officiellement en 27 avant Jésus Christ, le modèle impérial romain existe territorialement et géographiquement déjà avant la création de l’Empire romain. Rome devient un empire constitutionnellement parlant en 27 avant Jésus Christ, mais Rome se comporte déjà comme un empire disposant d’un vaste territoire bien avant la création formelle de l’Empire romain. Généralement, les historiens s’accordent à dire que le modèle impérial romain débute en 300 avant Jésus Christ où Rome tente d’établir un glacis protecteur d’avec les barbares. La République romaine s’étend territorialement au point d’avoir besoin de créer des zones sécuritaires afin de se protéger. On date l’établissement de ces avant-postes sécuritaires à cette époque.
+The Roman imperial regime did not create the empire as such. Although the Roman imperial regime officially came into being in 27 BC, the Roman imperial model already existed territorially and geographically before the creation of the Roman Empire. Rome becomes an empire constitutionally speaking in 27 BC, but Rome already behaves as an empire with a vast territory long before the formal creation of the Roman Empire. Generally speaking, historians agree that the Roman imperial model begins in 300 BC when Rome tries to establish a protective glacis from the barbarians. The Roman Republic expanded territorially to the point that it needed to create safe areas to protect itself. The establishment of these safe outposts is dated to this period.
-Au IIème siècle avant Jésus Christ, la République romaine n’est plus dans une logique sécuritaire, mais dans une logique expansionniste : Rome décide de conquérir le monde. La conquête romaine s’est accompagnée d’une hellénisation des Romains parce que la Grèce était LA civilisation de l’antiquité. Il est intéressant de voir que lorsque les Romains conquièrent la Grèce, cette grande civilisation de l’antiquité, ils ont très vite développé un complexe de supériorité politique et militaire vis-à-vis des Grecques, mais d’infériorité culturelle. Cela montre la dimension syncrétiste de l’Empire romain, la dimension empreinte à la culture grecque. Les Grecs ont toujours été méprisés par les Romains tout en les admirant secrètement.
+In the 2nd century B.C., the Roman Republic is no longer in a security logic, but in an expansionist logic: Rome decides to conquer the world. The Roman conquest was accompanied by the Hellenisation of the Romans because Greece was THE civilisation of antiquity. It is interesting to see that when the Romans conquered Greece, this great civilisation of antiquity, they very quickly developed a complex of political and military superiority over the Greeks, but cultural inferiority. This shows the syncretistic dimension of the Roman Empire, the dimension imprinted on Greek culture. The Greeks have always been despised by the Romans while secretly admiring them.
 {{Translations
-| fr Les fondements du modèle romain
+| fr = Les fondements du modèle romain
-| es =
+| es = Los fundamentos del modelo romano
 }}
-= Les fondements juridiques du modèle impérial romain =
+= The legal foundations of the Roman imperial model =
-[[Image:Byzantine eagle.JPG|thumb|L’aigle, symbole de nombreux empires occidentaux, mais aussi orientaux (ici celui de l’Empire byzantin).]]
+[[Image:Byzantine eagle.JPG|thumb|The eagle, symbol of many Western empires, but also Eastern (here that of the Byzantine Empire).]]
-Quels sont les fondements juridiques du modèle impérial romain ?
+What are the legal foundations of the Roman imperial model?
-L’Empire romain, à partir de 27 avant Jésus-Christ, est un ensemble de territoires immenses autour de la méditerranée réunie sous le suprême pouvoir de l’Empereur. Cet empire est territorialement extrêmement étendu. Aux avant-postes des camps de légionnaires gardent les frontières de l’empire. Le pouvoir de l’empire est incarné par l’Empereur qui est au fond le premier magistrat de Rome appelé César ou Auguste. On l’appelle sinon « Imperator », « Dominus » ou « Pater ».
+The Roman Empire, from 27 B.C. onwards, is a set of immense territories around the Mediterranean reunited under the supreme power of the Emperor. This empire was extremely extensive in terms of territory. Outposts of legionary camps guard the borders of the empire. The power of the empire is embodied by the Emperor who is basically the first magistrate of Rome called Caesar or Augustus. Otherwise he is called "Imperator", "Dominus" or "Pater".
-L’Empire romain n’a jamais eu une constitution au sens formel, l’absolutisme des empereurs est allé de manière croissante, il n’y a pas de constitution qui définit les prérogatives ou bien les limites du pouvoir. Un certain nombre de textes officiels permettent de comprendre quels étaient l’idéologie et les fondements juridiques de l’empereur. Les pouvoirs de l’empereur reposent au fond sur un certain nombre de critères et l’empereur détient quatre attributs.
+The Roman Empire has never had a constitution in the formal sense, the absolutism of emperors has been increasing, there is no constitution that defines the prerogatives or the limits of power. A number of official texts make it possible to understand what the emperor's ideology and legal foundations were. The powers of the emperor are basically based on a number of criteria and the emperor holds four attributes.
 == Potestas ==
-De manière générale, à l’époque romaine, la « potestas » désigne l’autorité reconnue par le droit d’une personne sur une autre. C’est le pouvoir que détient le premier magistrat de la République, c’est-à-dire l’Empereur. À l’origine c’était les magistrats de la République qui détenaient la potestas. La naissance du régime impérial a permis à l’empereur de récupérer le pouvoir pour lui. On voit l’influence du droit privé sur le droit public avec la récupération par l’empereur de ce droit.
+Generally speaking, in Roman times, "potestas" meant the authority recognised by the law of one person over another. It is the power held by the first magistrate of the Republic, i.e. the Emperor. Originally the potestas were held by the magistrates of the Republic. The birth of the imperial regime allowed the Emperor to regain power for himself. The influence of private law on public law can be seen in the emperor's recovery of this right.
-L’empereur a le moyen d’exercer un pouvoir de contrainte et d’assurer l’observation des lois :
+The emperor has the means to exercise a power of constraint and to ensure the observance of laws :
-*l’ « edictum » [1] qui est l’équivalent d’une directive,
+*the "edictum" [1] which is the equivalent of a directive,
-*le « decretum » [2] qui est la compétence de rendre un jugement,
+*the "decretum" [2] which is the competence to give judgment,
-*la « lettre impériale » [3] donnant la possibilité à l’empereur de donner des instructions écrites qui font de l’empereur le centre du pouvoir.
+*the "imperial letter" [3] giving the emperor the possibility to give written instructions that make the emperor the centre of power.
 == Imperium ==
-L’« imperium » renvoie à la possibilité de gouverner les territoires conquis. Le pouvoir de l’imperium contient au moins quatre compétences. Le détenteur de l’imperium est :
+Imperium refers to the possibility of governing conquered territories. The power of the imperium contains at least four competencies. The holder of the imperium is :
-*le commandant en chef des troupes [1]
+*the commander-in-chief of the troops [1].
-*celui qui signe ou révoque les traités [2],
+*who signs or revokes treaties [2],
-*il convoque le Sénat ou le pouvoir législatif [3],
+*he convenes the Senate or the legislative power [3],
-*il est le seul à posséder la compétence pour étendre la juridiction romaine [4], c’est-à-dire de décider où le droit romain s’applique et ne s’applique pas.
+*he is the only one with the competence to extend Roman jurisdiction [4], i.e. to decide where Roman law applies and does not apply.
-L’Empire romain a su combiner les règles de Rome avec les coutumes locales, réussissant à « gérer la diversité » des cultures et des peuples soumis.
+The Roman Empire was able to combine the rules of Rome with local customs, succeeding in "managing the diversity" of cultures and peoples under its control.
-== Puissance tribunicienne - potestas tribunicia ==
+== Tribunician power - potestas tribunicia ==
-[[Image:Empereur Auguste Portrait.jpg|vignette|200px|Portrait de l’empereur Auguste]]
-L’empereur est détenteur de la puissance tribunitienne. Elle fut créée par Auguste qui fut le premier empereur qui récupère le pouvoir des tribuns. C’est un pouvoir intéressant parce qu’il donnait aux tribuns la compétence de « proibicio », c’est-à-dire de bloquer des lois du Sénat qui contrevenaient soit à l’intérêt de l’armée, soit à l’intérêt de Rome.
-Auguste va récupérer ce pouvoir en abolissant cette compétence aux tribuns et la récupérer, c’est désormais l’empereur qui a la compétence et le droit de « proibicio ».
+[[Image:Empereur Auguste Portrait.jpg|vignette|200px|Portrait of the Emperor Augustus.]]
+The emperor is the holder of the tribudian power. It was created by Augustus who was the first emperor to recover the power of the tribune. It is an interesting power because it gave the tribunals the competence of "proibicio", that is to say, to block laws of the Senate that were against either the interest of the army or the interest of Rome.
+Augustus will recover this power by abolishing this competence to the tribunals and recover it, it is henceforth the emperor who has the competence and the right of "proibicio".
 == Auctoritas ==
-Auctoritas est une notion rattachée à une notion de prestige personnel. Celui qui en bénéfice à l’époque de l’Empire romain est une personne qui a une autorité morale. La personne qui doit avant toute chose en être le dépositaire est l’empereur. On ne sait pas comment le Sénat décide que l’empereur ait l’auctoritas ou pas, toutefois, c’est un attribut essentiel. On pense aujourd’hui que l’autorité morale des empereurs était votée symboliquement par le Sénat. Il y a une procédure à laquelle l’empereur doit se conformer qui est l’acte de refus de pouvoir. L’empereur est obligé de remettre chaque année son pouvoir en jeu et on pense que l’auctoritas était votée à ce moment-là.
+Auctoritas is a notion linked to a notion of personal prestige. The person who benefits from it during the Roman Empire is a person with moral authority. The person who must first and foremost be the depositary is the emperor. It is not known how the Senate decides whether the emperor has the auctoritas or not, however, it is an essential attribute. It is thought today that the moral authority of emperors was symbolically voted by the Senate. There is a procedure which the emperor must follow, which is the act of denial of power. The emperor is obliged to put his power back into play every year, and it is thought that the auctoritas was voted on at that time.
-= Les attributs de l’empereur constitutif du modèle impérial romain =
+= The attributes of the emperor constituting the Roman imperial model =
-Ces quatre attributs fondamentaux sont les attributs de l’empereur et sont constitutifs du modèle impérial romain. Il est possible d’imaginer que l’empereur avait des pouvoirs exceptionnellement étendus. Si cela est vrai que l’empereur est le premier magistrat de l’Empire et il est vrai que l’empereur a un pouvoir important, il a des obligations :
+These four fundamental attributes are the attributes of the emperor and are constitutive of the Roman imperial model. It is possible to imagine that the emperor had exceptionally extensive powers. If it is true that the emperor is the first magistrate of the Empire and it is true that the emperor has important power, he has obligations :
-*l’empereur à l’obligation de chercher le consensus c’est-à-dire la « concordia » qui est l’unité ou l’adhésion. Certes, il a le droit de « proibicio », mais il ne peut pas passer outre et imposer une mesure. C’est une obligation impériale respectée par tous les empereurs.
+*the emperor has the obligation to seek consensus, i.e. "concordia" which is unity or adhesion. Of course, he has the right to "proibicio", but he cannot ignore it and impose a measure. This is an imperial obligation respected by all emperors.
-*l’empereur doit se conformer à l’acte de refus du pouvoir : chaque année, le Sénat vote la réélection de l’empereur.
+*the emperor must comply with the act of refusing power: every year the Senate votes for the re-election of the emperor.
-*l’empereur a l’obligation de garantir, de protéger et de respecter la « libertas » qui est une valeur centrale de la philosophie du droit romain. Les citoyens romains peuvent jouir de leurs biens en toute sureté et de leurs droits en toute liberté. Être citoyens de Rome est le passeport de la liberté dans l’Empire.
+*the emperor has the obligation to guarantee, protect and respect the "libertas" which is a central value of the philosophy of Roman law. Roman citizens can enjoy their property in safety and their rights in freedom. Being citizens of Rome is the passport to freedom in the Empire.
-*l’empereur a l’obligation de consulter le « concilium principis » qui comprend exclusivement des juristes, c’est le conseil juridique de l’empereur. À partir du IIIème siècle avant Jésus Christ, l’empereur a le pouvoir suprême de demander un avis de droit au concilium principis.
+* the emperor has the obligation to consult the "concilium principis" which consists exclusively of jurists, the emperor's legal council. From the 3rd century BC onwards, the emperor has the supreme power to request legal advice from the concilium principis.
-Se dessine un modèle impérial qui donne des pouvoirs importants à l’empereur, mais ces pouvoirs sont contrebalancés par des obligations marquantes.
+An imperial model is emerging which gives the emperor significant powers, but these powers are counterbalanced by significant obligations.
-[[Fichier:Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Vercingétorix dépose les armes aux pieds de Jules César à l’issue du siège d’Alésia. Tableau de Lionel Royer, 1899.]]
+[[Fichier:Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Vercingetorix lays down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar at the end of the siege of Alesia. Painting by Lionel Royer, 1899.]]
-Au-delà des attributions juridiques, politiques ou morales, l’empereur dans le modèle romain jouit d’une authentique mystique impériale. Le pouvoir de l’empereur est augmenté par une mythologie. Lorsque Auguste devient empereur, il comprend bien la dimension symbolique du pouvoir. Le modèle d’empire romain est constitué sur l’idée que la symbolique et tout aussi importante que le pouvoir. Le pouvoir a une dimension objective avec la loi, mais également une dimension subjective qui est la symbolique impériale. Il y a deux moyens :
+Beyond the legal, political or moral attributions, the emperor in the Roman model enjoys an authentic imperial mystique. The emperor's power is increased by mythology. When Augustus became emperor, he understood the symbolic dimension of power. The Roman Empire model is built on the idea that symbolism is just as important as power. Power has an objective dimension with the law, but also a subjective dimension which is the imperial symbolic. There are two ways:
-*l’utilisation de la victoire militaire dans l’idéologie impériale : il est très important pour l’empereur romain d’être perçu par le peuple comme le militaire victorieux. Rome n’aime ni les faibles ni les perdants, la victoire est cruciale, mais il faut l’exploiter. Le premier moyen constituant la mythologie impériale est l’utilisation de la victoire militaire sur les peuples conquis. Le raisonnement de tous les empereurs est de dire que c’est parce que les dieux l’ont voulu donnant une dimension sacrée au pouvoir. Est sous-entendu que le magistrat suprême détient son pouvoir de la divinité. L’empereur repose son pouvoir sur une théologie de la victoire.
+*the use of military victory in imperial ideology: it is very important for the Roman emperor to be perceived by the people as the victorious military. Rome loves neither the weak nor the losers, victory is crucial, but it must be exploited. The first means constituting imperial mythology is the use of military victory over conquered peoples. The reasoning of all emperors is to say that it is because the gods wanted it to give a sacred dimension to power. It is implied that the supreme magistrate holds his power from the gods. The emperor bases his power on a theology of victory.
-*La sacralisation de sa propre personne par le culte impérial : le Sénat vote l’instauration d’un culte la « consecratio » au nom d’un empereur qui vient de mourir. Tout empereur qui vient de mourir est soumis à un débat au Sénat qui va décréter par la loi si, quel jour, quelle semaine doit être dédié au culte de l’empereur. Tous les empereurs ont eu à cœur d’avoir un nom qui génère un culte.
+*The sacralization of his own person by imperial worship: the Senate votes to establish a cult of "consecratio" in the name of an emperor who has just died. Any emperor who has just died is submitted to a debate in the Senate, which decrees by law whether, on what day, what week should be dedicated to the worship of the emperor. All emperors have had at heart to have a name that generates a cult.
-Le territoire de l’Empire romain est immense, organisé en provinces et il est limité par ce qu’on appelle le « limes » qui est la bordure de territoire. La frontière romaine de l’Empire romain s’appelle le « lime » et la fonction de frontière est extrêmement importante afin de comprendre le modèle impérial romain. L’Empire romain s’est construit sur un mode inclusif et exclusif. Soit on était dans l’empire ou hors de l’empire, membre d’un empire ou de l’autre côté de la frontière où se trouvent les barbares. Cette idéologie presque binaire romain – barbare, inclusive – exclusive va beaucoup marquer les conceptions impériales qui vont naitre plus tard. Ce « nous » va faire la distinction entre les « hommes civilisés » et les « hommes non civilisés ».
+The territory of the Roman Empire is immense, organised into provinces and it is limited by the so-called "limes" which is the border of the territory. The Roman border of the Roman Empire is called the "file" and the function of the border is extremely important in order to understand the Roman imperial model. The Roman Empire was built in an inclusive and exclusive way. Either one was inside or outside the empire, a member of an empire or on the other side of the border where the barbarians were. This almost binary Roman ideology - barbarian, inclusive - exclusive - was to have a strong influence on the imperial conceptions that were to emerge later. This "we" will distinguish between "civilised men" and "uncivilised men".
-L’idée d’empire romain reposait sur un empereur, mais surtout sur l’idée d’un pouvoir central fort incarné dans la personne de l’empereur. L’empereur a un certain nombre de compétences et de prérogatives entourées d’un culte impérial avec une forme de sacralisation de sa personne. La notion de frontière était extrêmement importante dans l’Empire romain à la fois géographiquement, politiquement, militairement, mais aussi idéologiquement, car cela permettait de définir ceux qui sont dans l’empire et ceux qui sont en dehors de l’empire. La notion binaire homme libre – homme esclave est une idée ancienne que l’on doit aux Romains irriguant l’idée d’empire occidental.
+The idea of the Roman Empire was based on an emperor, but above all on the idea of a strong central power embodied in the person of the emperor. The emperor had a number of competences and prerogatives surrounded by an imperial cult with a form of sacralization of his person. The notion of frontier was extremely important in the Roman Empire both geographically, politically, militarily, but also ideologically, as it defined those who were within the empire and those who were outside the empire. The binary notion of free man - slave man is an ancient idea that we owe to the Romans irrigating the idea of the Western Empire.
-= Les caractéristiques de l’Empire romain =
+= The features of the Roman Empire =
-L’Empire romain repose sur quatre caractéristiques :
+The Roman Empire is based on four characteristics :
-#l’idée romaine d’empire est conservatrice parce qu’il s’agit pour les Romains de conserver le passé et de ce point de vue, l’Empire romain n’a jamais proclamé sa rupture avec la République romaine. Il y a une obsession de rester en lien et en symbiose avec le passé. Il y a d’une certaine manière un culte presque sacré pour les Romains. C’est une société polythéiste ou les dieux ont une fonction sociale importante. Il s’agit de conserver les rites, les coutumes du passé et l’idée d’un territoire uni autour d’une ville qui est Rome.
+#The Roman idea of empire is conservative because it is a question of preserving the past and from this point of view, the Roman Empire never proclaimed its break with the Roman Republic. There is an obsession to stay in touch and in symbiosis with the past. In a way, there is an almost sacred cult for the Romans. It is a polytheistic society where the gods have an important social function. It is about preserving the rites, the customs of the past and the idea of a united territory around a city that is Rome.
-#c’est un empire autoritaire : l’empereur possède des pouvoirs juridiques, politiques et moraux extrêmement importants. De surcroit, il gouverne par la volonté des dieux.
+#It is an authoritarian empire: the emperor has extremely important legal, political and moral powers. Moreover, he rules by the will of the gods.
-#c’est un empire progressiste : il y a les deux tendances, progressistes parce que sur le plan juridique, l’Empire romain consacre le droit romain comme droit de l’Empire romain, c’est un droit progressiste et abouti. Le droit romain est le droit de l’Empire et la langue de l’empire est également le latin qui est la langue officielle de l’empire. L’unification par la langue et par le droit en fait un empire aussi de progressiste regardant vers l’avenir. La grande force des Romains est de l’Empire romain est d’avoir romanisé toutes les élites romaines. Tous les peuples périphériques vont se romaniser dans les us et coutumes. À l’heure actuelle, on parle d’américanisation de certaines sociétés, à l’époque on peut parler de romanisation de l’Empire romain.
+#It is a progressive empire: there are two tendencies, progressive because legally speaking, the Roman Empire enshrines Roman law as the law of the Roman Empire, it is a progressive and successful law. Roman law is the law of the Empire and the language of the Empire is also Latin, which is the official language of the Empire. Unification through language and law makes it also a progressive empire looking to the future. The great strength of the Roman Empire is to have Romanised all the Roman elites. All the peripheral peoples were Romanised in their habits and customs. At the present time, there is talk of the Americanisation of certain societies, at the time we can speak of the Romanisation of the Roman Empire.
-#c’est un empire libéral : l’Empire romain a toujours cherché à respecter la liberté et les croyances des peuples conquis. Il n’y a pas du tout chez les Romains une quelconque volonté et/ou une quelconque forme de prosélytisme. L’Empire romain n’a jamais cherché a convertir les peuples conquis, ce n’est pas une logique de prosélytisme des deux grandes relions monothéistes. Fondamentalement, l’Empire romain n’a pas cherché à convertir et à changer les croyances. De ce point de vue, les Romains on fait preuve d’une immense tolérance acceptant les rites religieux de tous les peuples conquis. Autrement dit, l’Empire romain a été tolérant et a consacré le principe de diversité dans l’idéologie impériale. L’empire à son apogée est un empire « multiethnique » englobant des populations, des langues et des us et coutumes variés. Les Romains, extrêmement violents dans la guerre, n’ont jamais cherché à convertir ni à annihiler et détruire les cultures de peuples qu’ils avaient sous leur domination militaire.
+#It is a liberal empire: the Roman Empire has always sought to respect the freedom and beliefs of the conquered peoples. There is not at all among the Romans any willingness and/or any form of proselytism. The Roman Empire has never sought to convert the conquered peoples, it is not a logic of proselytism of the two great monotheistic relics. Fundamentally, the Roman Empire did not seek to convert and change beliefs. From this point of view, the Romans showed immense tolerance accepting the religious rites of all conquered peoples. In other words, the Roman Empire was tolerant and enshrined the principle of diversity in imperial ideology. The empire at its height was a "multi-ethnic" empire, encompassing diverse populations, languages and customs. The Romans, extremely violent in war, never sought to convert or to annihilate and destroy the cultures of the peoples they had under their military rule.
-[[Image:Vespasianus01 pushkin edit.png|thumb|Buste de Vespasien.]]
+[[Image:Vespasianus01 pushkin edit.png|thumb|Bust of Vespasien.]]
-Dans la « loi sur l’imperium de Vespasien », sont signifiées la notion d’« imperium » et de « potestas ». Le détenteur de l’imperium a notamment la possibilité de conclure des traités.
+In the "Vespasian Imperium Law" the terms "imperium" and "potestas" are used. In particular, the holder of the imperium has the possibility of concluding treaties.
-{{citation bloc|Qu’il lui soit permis de conclure des traités avec qui il voudra, comme cela fut permis au divin Auguste, à Tibère Jules César Auguste, et à Tibère Claude César Auguste Germanicus.
+{{citation bloc|Let him be allowed to conclude treaties with whomever he wishes, as was permitted to the divine Augustus, Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
-Qu’il lui soit permis d’assembler le sénat, d’y faire ou faire faire des propositions, de faire rendre des sénatus-consultes par votes individuels, ou en ordonnant le partage, comme cela a été permis au divin Auguste, à Tibère Jules César Auguste, à Tibère Claude César Auguste Germanicus
+That he may be allowed to assemble the Senate, to make or cause to be made proposals, to have sénatus-consultes rendered by individual votes, or by ordering the division, as was permitted to the divine Augustus, to Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, to Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
-Toutes les fois que le sénat sera assemblé en vertu de sa volonté, de son autorisation, de son ordre, de son mandat, ou en sa présence, que tous ses actes aient leur force, et soient observés, aussi bien que s’il était convoqué ou tenu d’après une loi ;
+Whenever the Senate is assembled by virtue of its will, authorisation, order, mandate, or in its presence, all its acts shall have their force, and shall be observed, as well as if it were summoned or required by law;
-Toutes les fois que les aspirants à une magistrature, pouvoir, commandement, ou charge quelconque, seront le romain, et qu’il leur aura donné ou promis son appui, que dans tous les comices leur candidature soit comptée extrao dinairemcnt ;}}
+Whenever the aspirants to any magistracy, power, command, or office whatsoever, shall be the Roman, and he shall have given or promised his support to them, that in all comices their candidacy shall be counted extraordinarily;}}
-L’empereur a le pouvoir d’élire les magistrats. Ces quatre lignes sont fondamentales parce qu’elles décrivent les prérogatives de l’empereur qui sont étendues.
+The emperor has the power to elect magistrates. These four lines are fundamental because they describe the emperor's prerogatives, which are extensive.
-{{citation bloc|Qu’il lui soit permis, toutes les fois qu’il le trouvera utile à la République, d’étendre et reculer les limites du Pomoerium, comme cela a été permis à Tibère Claude César Auguste Germanicus ;
+{{citation bloc|May he be allowed, whenever he finds it useful to the Republic, to extend and push back the limits of the Pomoerium, as was allowed to Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ;
-Qu’il ait le droit et le plein pouvoir de faire tout ce qu’il croira convenable à l’intérêt de la République, à la majesté des choses divines « et humaines, au bien public et particulier, ainsi que l’eurent le divin Auguste, Tibère Jules César Auguste, et Tibère Claude César Auguste Germanicus ;}}
+That he has the right and the full power to do whatever he thinks fit in the interest of the Republic, in the majesty of divine" and human things, in the public and private good, as was allowed to the divine Augustus, Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus;}}
-[[Image:Res Gestae.jpg|thumb|Un fragment des “Res Gestae”.]]
+[[Image:Res Gestae.jpg|thumb|A fragment of the "Res Gestae".]]
-Dans “'Res Gestae Divi Augusti”, l’empereur a la potestas et l’autoritas mais il est l’égal des magistrats. Auguste qui fut le premier empereur se considérait comme un citoyen romain égal des autres.
+In "'Res Gestae Divi Augusti", the emperor has potestas and autoritas but he is the equal of the magistrates. Augustus who was the first emperor considered himself an equal Roman citizen of the others.
-{{citation bloc|31.1.-3 – Dans mes sixième et septième consultats, après que j’eus éteint les flammes des guerres civiles, alors que je détenais de l’assentiment de tout le contrôle absolu des affaires, je transférai la res publica de ma potestat à la volonté du sénat et du peuple romain… après cette époque, je l’ai emporté sur tous par l’ “autoritas”, mais de potestas, je n’en eux en rien plus que les autres qui ont été, à moi aussi, mes collègues dans la magistrature}}
+{{citation bloc|31.1.-3 – In my sixth and seventh consulates, after I had extinguished the flames of the civil wars, with the assent of all the absolute control of affairs, I transferred the res publica of my potestat to the will of the senate and of the Roman people ... after that time I prevailed over all by the "autoritas", but of potestas I was no more than the others who were, to me too, my colleagues in the magistracy.}}
-Le pouvoir impérial va se concentrer et dériver de manière autoritaire après Auguste.
+The imperial power will concentrate and drift authoritatively after Augustus.
-{{citation bloc|8.5 – Par de nouvelles lois prises sur mon initiatives, j’ai restauré beaucoup de traditions de nos ancêtres qui tombaient à notre époque en désuétude, et moi-même, sur de nombreux points, j’ai fourni des exemples à imiter par la postérité.}}
+{{citation bloc|8.5 – Through new laws passed on my initiative, I have restored many of the traditions of our ancestors that had fallen into disuse in our time, and in many respects I have provided examples for posterity to emulate.}}
-On voit deux choses ici, la dimension conservatrice, par ailleurs, il a voulu imiter pour la postérité. Il y a l’idée de restaurer le passé pour l’assurer et le conserver pour la postérité. La conception conservatrice de l’empire est défendue ici par Auguste.
+We see two things here, the conservative dimension and the fact that he wanted to imitate for posterity. There is the idea of restoring the past in order to ensure it and preserve it for posterity. The conservative conception of empire is defended here by Augustus.
-Cet empire romain, bien évidemment, ne va pas s’éteindre avec sa chute. Autrement dit, la chute de Rome en 476 après Jésus-Christ ne signifie nullement la fin de l’idée d’Empire romain et surtout la fin d’Empire en général. Au contraire, l’idée d’empire va survivre à Rome et dans toute l’Europe médiévale comme en témoigne deux grands empires que sont l’Empire carolingien, mais surtout la fondation du Saint Empire romain germanique en 962 se présentant comme l’hériter de la notion d’Empire. La chute institutionnelle de Rome ne signifie pas la fin de l’idée d’empire fondé sur un certain nombre de caractéristiques. Durant tout le Moyen Âge, cette idée d’empire va au fond survivre, être reprise dans deux institutions. Tout d’abord chez les peuples germains et enfin dans l’Église romaine. Après la chute de Rome, l’idée romaine d’empire prend deux directions. Quelque part, elle va être reprise par le Saint Empire romain germanique puis par l’Église catholique romaine.
+This Roman empire, of course, will not die out with its fall. In other words, the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. in no way signifies the end of the idea of the Roman Empire and especially the end of the Empire in general. On the contrary, the idea of empire would survive in Rome and throughout medieval Europe, as evidenced by two great empires, the Carolingian Empire and, above all, the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire in 962, which is said to have inherited the notion of Empire. The institutional fall of Rome does not mean the end of the idea of empire based on a number of characteristics. Throughout the Middle Ages, this idea of empire basically survived, being taken up in two institutions. Firstly among the Germanic peoples and finally in the Roman Church. After the fall of Rome, the Roman idea of empire took two directions. Somewhere, it was taken up by the Holy Roman Empire and then by the Roman Catholic Church.
-Comment les peuples germains ont transformé l’idée d’empire pour en faire le Saint Empire romain germanique ?
+How did the Germanic peoples transform the idea of empire into the Holy Roman Empire?
 = Annexes =

« The foundations of the Roman model » : différence entre les versions