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	<title>Externalities and the role of government - Historique des versions</title>
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	<updated>2026-04-07T15:49:02Z</updated>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=66173&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur le 11 janvier 2024 à 10:14</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=66173&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-11T10:14:09Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122;&quot; data-mw=&quot;interface&quot;&gt;
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				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 11 janvier 2024 à 12:14&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l11&quot;&gt;Ligne 11 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 11 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;{{hidden&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;{{hidden&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|[[Introduction to microeconomics]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|[[Introduction to microeconomics]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|[[Microeconomics Principles and Concept]] ● [[Supply and demand: How markets work]] ● [[Elasticity and its application]] ● [[Supply, demand and government policies]] ● [[Consumer and producer surplus]]  ● [[Externalities and the role of government]] ● [[The costs of production]] ● [[Firms in competitive markets]] ● [[Monopoly]] ● [[Oligopoly]] ● [[Monopolisitc competition]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|[[Microeconomics Principles and Concept]] ● [[Supply and demand: How markets work]] ● [[Elasticity and its application]] ● [[Supply, demand and government policies]] ● [[Consumer and producer surplus]]  ● [[Externalities and the role of government&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;]] ● [[Principles and Dilemmas of Public Goods in the Market Economy&lt;/ins&gt;]] ● [[The costs of production]] ● [[Firms in competitive markets]] ● [[Monopoly]] ● [[Oligopoly]] ● [[Monopolisitc competition]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|headerstyle=background:#ffffff&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|headerstyle=background:#ffffff&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|style=text-align:center;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;|style=text-align:center;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65991&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur le 8 janvier 2024 à 15:10</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65991&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T15:10:06Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122;&quot; data-mw=&quot;interface&quot;&gt;
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				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 8 janvier 2024 à 17:10&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l41&quot;&gt;Ligne 41 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 41 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Negative externalities take many forms and have a considerable impact on society and the environment. Take the example of cigarette smoke, often cited for its secondary effects on non-smokers. People exposed to passive smoke suffer increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disease, even though they have not chosen to be exposed to these dangers. Another striking example is car exhaust fumes. Air pollution from car traffic affects public health and the environment, even for those who make little or no use of their vehicles. This illustrates how individual transport choices can have widespread and unintended consequences. In urban and residential areas, problems such as dogs barking excessively or leaving faeces on pavements also constitute negative externalities. These behaviours cause inconvenience to residents, ranging from noise nuisance to an increased need for cleaning and maintenance of public spaces. Noise nuisance in general, whether from industry, construction work or leisure activities, is another source of negative externality. It can disrupt daily life, affecting the well-being, sleep and mental health of people living or working nearby. A less obvious but equally important example is antibiotic resistance, exacerbated by the overuse of drugs. Excessive use of antibiotics causes pathogens to adapt, making treatment less effective for the whole population, not just those taking the drugs. Finally, environmental pollution or degradation in various forms - such as the dumping of industrial waste, deforestation or greenhouse gas emissions - has major negative repercussions. These activities damage ecosystems, affect human and animal health, and contribute to climate change, with effects often felt far beyond the immediate areas of impact. These examples highlight the need for government intervention to regulate activities that generate negative externalities. Solutions can include regulations, taxes to discourage harmful behaviour, or awareness campaigns to inform the public of the consequences of certain actions. By proactively addressing these issues, societies can better manage the unwanted side-effects of certain activities and promote a healthier, more sustainable environment for all.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Negative externalities take many forms and have a considerable impact on society and the environment. Take the example of cigarette smoke, often cited for its secondary effects on non-smokers. People exposed to passive smoke suffer increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disease, even though they have not chosen to be exposed to these dangers. Another striking example is car exhaust fumes. Air pollution from car traffic affects public health and the environment, even for those who make little or no use of their vehicles. This illustrates how individual transport choices can have widespread and unintended consequences. In urban and residential areas, problems such as dogs barking excessively or leaving faeces on pavements also constitute negative externalities. These behaviours cause inconvenience to residents, ranging from noise nuisance to an increased need for cleaning and maintenance of public spaces. Noise nuisance in general, whether from industry, construction work or leisure activities, is another source of negative externality. It can disrupt daily life, affecting the well-being, sleep and mental health of people living or working nearby. A less obvious but equally important example is antibiotic resistance, exacerbated by the overuse of drugs. Excessive use of antibiotics causes pathogens to adapt, making treatment less effective for the whole population, not just those taking the drugs. Finally, environmental pollution or degradation in various forms - such as the dumping of industrial waste, deforestation or greenhouse gas emissions - has major negative repercussions. These activities damage ecosystems, affect human and animal health, and contribute to climate change, with effects often felt far beyond the immediate areas of impact. These examples highlight the need for government intervention to regulate activities that generate negative externalities. Solutions can include regulations, taxes to discourage harmful behaviour, or awareness campaigns to inform the public of the consequences of certain actions. By proactively addressing these issues, societies can better manage the unwanted side-effects of certain activities and promote a healthier, more sustainable environment for all.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Positive externalities, where the actions of one person or company benefit others without direct compensation, play a crucial role in the economy and society&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;. Your examples illustrate this dynamic well&lt;/del&gt;. Take, for example, the phenomenon of a car being sucked up by a lorry on the motorway. When a lorry is travelling at high speed, it creates a wake of air that can reduce wind resistance for the following vehicles, thereby improving their fuel efficiency. Although this is not the truck driver's main intention, it benefits other drivers by reducing their fuel consumption. Vaccines are a classic example of a positive externality. When people are vaccinated, they not only protect themselves against certain diseases, but also reduce the likelihood of these diseases being transmitted to others. This herd immunity benefits the whole community, especially those who cannot be vaccinated for medical reasons. The restoration of historic buildings or any activity that attracts tourists also brings significant benefits to the local community. These projects not only increase the aesthetic appeal of an area, but also stimulate the local economy by attracting visitors who spend money in hotels, restaurants and other local businesses. Another fascinating example is the interaction between an orchard and the hives of a neighbouring beekeeper. The beekeeper benefits from the presence of the orchard, as his bees find an abundant source of nectar, improving the quality and quantity of their honey. In return, the orchards benefit from pollination by the bees, which is essential for fruit production. It's a fine example of symbiosis where both parties mutually benefit from their respective activities. Finally, research into new technologies is often a source of positive externalities. Innovations and discoveries can benefit society as a whole by improving quality of life, introducing new solutions to existing problems and stimulating economic growth. Often, the benefits of such research far outweigh the direct spin-offs for the researchers or the organisations that fund them. These examples illustrate the importance of positive externalities in our society. They also highlight the role that government intervention, for example by subsidising or supporting activities that generate such externalities, can play in maximising collective well-being.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Positive externalities, where the actions of one person or company benefit others without direct compensation, play a crucial role in the economy and society. Take, for example, the phenomenon of a car being sucked up by a lorry on the motorway. When a lorry is travelling at high speed, it creates a wake of air that can reduce wind resistance for the following vehicles, thereby improving their fuel efficiency. Although this is not the truck driver's main intention, it benefits other drivers by reducing their fuel consumption. Vaccines are a classic example of a positive externality. When people are vaccinated, they not only protect themselves against certain diseases, but also reduce the likelihood of these diseases being transmitted to others. This herd immunity benefits the whole community, especially those who cannot be vaccinated for medical reasons. The restoration of historic buildings or any activity that attracts tourists also brings significant benefits to the local community. These projects not only increase the aesthetic appeal of an area, but also stimulate the local economy by attracting visitors who spend money in hotels, restaurants and other local businesses. Another fascinating example is the interaction between an orchard and the hives of a neighbouring beekeeper. The beekeeper benefits from the presence of the orchard, as his bees find an abundant source of nectar, improving the quality and quantity of their honey. In return, the orchards benefit from pollination by the bees, which is essential for fruit production. It's a fine example of symbiosis where both parties mutually benefit from their respective activities. Finally, research into new technologies is often a source of positive externalities. Innovations and discoveries can benefit society as a whole by improving quality of life, introducing new solutions to existing problems and stimulating economic growth. Often, the benefits of such research far outweigh the direct spin-offs for the researchers or the organisations that fund them. These examples illustrate the importance of positive externalities in our society. They also highlight the role that government intervention, for example by subsidising or supporting activities that generate such externalities, can play in maximising collective well-being.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== The Consequences of Externalities on the Market Economy ==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== The Consequences of Externalities on the Market Economy ==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l156&quot;&gt;Ligne 156 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 156 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;[[Fichier:Education et optimum social 1.png|400px|vignette|centré]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;[[Fichier:Education et optimum social 1.png|400px|vignette|centré]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The graph &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;you have shared &lt;/del&gt;represents an economic analysis of education as a good on a market, taking into account the effects of positive externalities. The supply curve, which rises, shows that providing more education costs educational institutions more, incorporating elements such as teachers' salaries, infrastructure and teaching resources. On the other hand, the falling demand curve shows that the quantity of education that individuals are prepared to consume decreases as the price rises, which is typical of most goods and services.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The graph represents an economic analysis of education as a good on a market, taking into account the effects of positive externalities. The supply curve, which rises, shows that providing more education costs educational institutions more, incorporating elements such as teachers' salaries, infrastructure and teaching resources. On the other hand, the falling demand curve shows that the quantity of education that individuals are prepared to consume decreases as the price rises, which is typical of most goods and services.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Where these two curves cross, we find the equilibrium quantity of the market, which is the point where the quantity of education offered corresponds to the quantity that consumers are prepared to buy. However, this equilibrium quantity does not necessarily reflect the optimal level for society as a whole due to the presence of positive externalities associated with education, such as better informed citizens, increased productivity and public health benefits that extend beyond the educated individual.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Where these two curves cross, we find the equilibrium quantity of the market, which is the point where the quantity of education offered corresponds to the quantity that consumers are prepared to buy. However, this equilibrium quantity does not necessarily reflect the optimal level for society as a whole due to the presence of positive externalities associated with education, such as better informed citizens, increased productivity and public health benefits that extend beyond the educated individual.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l182&quot;&gt;Ligne 182 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 182 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;[[Fichier:Externalité positive et bien être 1.png|400px|vignette|centré]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;[[Fichier:Externalité positive et bien être 1.png|400px|vignette|centré]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The &lt;/del&gt;graph &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;you have shared &lt;/del&gt;represents an economic situation where a positive externality is present on the market. In this case, the social cost of production is equal to the private cost, which indicates that external costs are not significant or that negative externalities are not the focus here. On the other hand, the social benefit curve, which is the sum of private benefits and external benefits, is above the private benefit curve, indicating that the production or consumption of the good or service concerned has additional benefits for society that are not captured by the market.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This &lt;/ins&gt;graph represents an economic situation where a positive externality is present on the market. In this case, the social cost of production is equal to the private cost, which indicates that external costs are not significant or that negative externalities are not the focus here. On the other hand, the social benefit curve, which is the sum of private benefits and external benefits, is above the private benefit curve, indicating that the production or consumption of the good or service concerned has additional benefits for society that are not captured by the market.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The demand curve, representing the private benefit, shows the price that consumers are prepared to pay for each quantity of good or service. The social benefit curve, which is above, shows the true benefit to society, including external benefits not paid for by individuals. This could include, for example, benefits such as better public health due to increased vaccination or higher economic productivity due to a better educated population.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The demand curve, representing the private benefit, shows the price that consumers are prepared to pay for each quantity of good or service. The social benefit curve, which is above, shows the true benefit to society, including external benefits not paid for by individuals. This could include, for example, benefits such as better public health due to increased vaccination or higher economic productivity due to a better educated population.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l229&quot;&gt;Ligne 229 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 229 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;In these situations where the conditions of Coase's theorem are not met, state intervention through regulations, taxes or subsidies may be necessary to achieve an allocation of resources that reflects the social cost or benefit of the externalities. This helps to ensure that externalities are internalised, leading to a solution that is closer to the social optimum.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;In these situations where the conditions of Coase's theorem are not met, state intervention through regulations, taxes or subsidies may be necessary to achieve an allocation of resources that reflects the social cost or benefit of the externalities. This helps to ensure that externalities are internalised, leading to a solution that is closer to the social optimum.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The problems &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;you have &lt;/del&gt;raised are major challenges when it comes to solving externalities by market means or private solutions, as described in Coase's theorem.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The problems raised are major challenges when it comes to solving externalities by market means or private solutions, as described in Coase's theorem.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Problem I - High Transaction Costs: Transaction costs include all the costs associated with negotiating and executing an exchange. In the case of externalities, these costs may include the costs of finding information about the affected parties, the costs of negotiating to reach an agreement, the legal costs of formalising the agreement, and the monitoring and enforcement costs of ensuring that the terms of the agreement are respected. When these costs are prohibitive, the parties cannot reach an agreement that would internalise the externality. As a result, the market alone fails to correct the externality, and external intervention, such as by the state, may become necessary to facilitate a more efficient solution.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Problem I - High Transaction Costs: Transaction costs include all the costs associated with negotiating and executing an exchange. In the case of externalities, these costs may include the costs of finding information about the affected parties, the costs of negotiating to reach an agreement, the legal costs of formalising the agreement, and the monitoring and enforcement costs of ensuring that the terms of the agreement are respected. When these costs are prohibitive, the parties cannot reach an agreement that would internalise the externality. As a result, the market alone fails to correct the externality, and external intervention, such as by the state, may become necessary to facilitate a more efficient solution.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l374&quot;&gt;Ligne 374 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 374 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;However, Pigouvian taxes also have disadvantages. One of the main problems is that the government has to determine the exact social cost of pollution in order to set the tax at a level that will internalise the external costs. This can be extremely difficult, as the damage caused by pollution can vary considerably depending on many factors, including geography, population density, and the sensitivity of local ecosystems. If the tax is set too low, it will not reduce pollution sufficiently; if it is set too high, it could impose unnecessarily high costs on businesses and consumers.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;However, Pigouvian taxes also have disadvantages. One of the main problems is that the government has to determine the exact social cost of pollution in order to set the tax at a level that will internalise the external costs. This can be extremely difficult, as the damage caused by pollution can vary considerably depending on many factors, including geography, population density, and the sensitivity of local ecosystems. If the tax is set too low, it will not reduce pollution sufficiently; if it is set too high, it could impose unnecessarily high costs on businesses and consumers.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Pigouvian taxes are therefore often preferred for their flexibility and potential for innovation, but they require precise knowledge of the social damage caused by pollution, which is difficult to quantify. The decision whether to use taxes or permits will depend on the specific circumstances, environmental policy objectives, and the state's ability to gather the necessary information and adjust policies accordingly. In practice, a combination of both approaches, and &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;indeed &lt;/del&gt;other policy instruments, may be needed to manage pollution effectively and protect the environment while maintaining economic efficiency.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Pigouvian taxes are therefore often preferred for their flexibility and potential for innovation, but they require precise knowledge of the social damage caused by pollution, which is difficult to quantify. The decision whether to use taxes or permits will depend on the specific circumstances, environmental policy objectives, and the state's ability to gather the necessary information and adjust policies accordingly. In practice, a combination of both approaches, and other policy instruments, may be needed to manage pollution effectively and protect the environment while maintaining economic efficiency.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Direct pollution restrictions or regulations are often preferred for their simplicity and the certainty they provide to both regulators and companies. They prescribe specific emission limits that must be met, which can be particularly beneficial in situations where there is a lack of information about the precise social costs of pollution. These regulations set clear standards and provide predictable results: companies know what is expected of them and regulators have a clear framework for monitoring and enforcement. On the other hand, these regulations have significant disadvantages in terms of providing incentives for improvement. Once a company complies with the standard, there is often little or no incentive to reduce pollution further. This can lead to a state of complacency where companies are content to comply with standards without seeking to excel in environmental performance. In addition, regulations can introduce economic distortions by not encouraging companies to look for ways to reduce costs. They could find themselves stuck with expensive technologies specifically designed to meet regulatory requirements, without exploring other potentially more efficient or less costly options.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Direct pollution restrictions or regulations are often preferred for their simplicity and the certainty they provide to both regulators and companies. They prescribe specific emission limits that must be met, which can be particularly beneficial in situations where there is a lack of information about the precise social costs of pollution. These regulations set clear standards and provide predictable results: companies know what is expected of them and regulators have a clear framework for monitoring and enforcement. On the other hand, these regulations have significant disadvantages in terms of providing incentives for improvement. Once a company complies with the standard, there is often little or no incentive to reduce pollution further. This can lead to a state of complacency where companies are content to comply with standards without seeking to excel in environmental performance. In addition, regulations can introduce economic distortions by not encouraging companies to look for ways to reduce costs. They could find themselves stuck with expensive technologies specifically designed to meet regulatory requirements, without exploring other potentially more efficient or less costly options.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65987&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Synthèse des Concepts et Stratégies Abordés */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65987&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T14:55:56Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Synthèse des Concepts et Stratégies Abordés&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 8 janvier 2024 à 16:55&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l380&quot;&gt;Ligne 380 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 380 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The costs associated with regulatory compliance can also be high. The technologies required to meet standards can be expensive, and these additional costs are often passed on to consumers. This can have repercussions on the market in terms of competitiveness and accessibility, as the prices of goods and services rise to cover increased capital investment and operating costs. Restrictions are therefore an important tool in the environmental policy toolbox, providing a guarantee that certain emission levels will not be exceeded. However, they can be rigid and not conducive to innovation and continuous improvement beyond the minimum requirements. Thus, a mix of direct regulation with other economic instruments such as Pigouvian taxes and tradable emission permit systems can offer a compromise between certainty, flexibility and incentives for innovation, leading to a more nuanced and effective approach to pollution management.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The costs associated with regulatory compliance can also be high. The technologies required to meet standards can be expensive, and these additional costs are often passed on to consumers. This can have repercussions on the market in terms of competitiveness and accessibility, as the prices of goods and services rise to cover increased capital investment and operating costs. Restrictions are therefore an important tool in the environmental policy toolbox, providing a guarantee that certain emission levels will not be exceeded. However, they can be rigid and not conducive to innovation and continuous improvement beyond the minimum requirements. Thus, a mix of direct regulation with other economic instruments such as Pigouvian taxes and tradable emission permit systems can offer a compromise between certainty, flexibility and incentives for innovation, leading to a more nuanced and effective approach to pollution management.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Synthèse des &lt;/del&gt;Concepts &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et Stratégies Abordés&lt;/del&gt;=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;= &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Summary of &lt;/ins&gt;Concepts &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and Strategies Addressed &lt;/ins&gt;=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les externalités se manifestent lorsqu'une transaction entre un acheteur et un vendeur a des répercussions sur des tiers qui ne sont ni acheteurs ni vendeurs dans cette transaction. Ces effets secondaires non compensés peuvent être soit bénéfiques (externalités positives), soit nuisibles (externalités négatives). Une externalité négative, telle que la pollution émanant d'une usine, entraîne une surproduction par rapport à ce qui serait socialement idéal, car le coût externe n'est pas pris en compte dans la décision de production de l'usine. À l'inverse, une externalité positive, comme la vaccination, entraîne une sous-production car les bénéfices pour la société ne sont pas entièrement réfléchis dans les incitations privées des individus ou des entreprises.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-added&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Dans certains cas, les &lt;/del&gt;parties &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;affectées par les externalités peuvent trouver une solution par eux-mêmes&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Le théorème de Coase stipule que si les droits de propriété sont clairement définis et que les coûts de transaction sont nuls&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les parties peuvent négocier des compensations qui mèneront à une allocation efficace des ressources&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;quel que soit le détenteur initial des droits&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Toutefois&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;dans la pratique&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les coûts de transaction sont rarement nuls et les droits de propriété pas toujours clairement définis&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ce qui complique souvent les négociations privées&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Externalities arise when a transaction between a buyer and a seller has repercussions on third &lt;/ins&gt;parties &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;who are neither buyers nor sellers in that transaction. These uncompensated side effects can be either beneficial (positive externalities) or harmful (negative externalities)&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;A negative externality, such as pollution from a factory&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;leads to overproduction compared with what would be socially ideal&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;because the external cost is not taken into account in the factory's production decision&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Conversely&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;a positive externality&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;such as vaccination&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;leads to underproduction because the benefits to society are not fully reflected in the private incentives of individuals or companies&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Lorsque les négociations privées ne suffisent pas à résoudre les problèmes d'externalités&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'intervention gouvernementale peut être nécessaire&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Le gouvernement peut choisir d&lt;/del&gt;'&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;imposer des normes de comportement&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;qui sont des règlementations directes dictant des obligations ou des interdictions&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ces normes sont faciles à comprendre et peuvent être efficaces pour atteindre des objectifs spécifiques&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;mais elles peuvent aussi être rigides et ne pas inciter à une amélioration continue&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;In some cases&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the parties affected by the externalities can find a solution themselves&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Coase&lt;/ins&gt;'&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;s theorem states that if property rights are clearly defined and transaction costs are zero&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;parties can negotiate compensations that will lead to an efficient allocation of resources, regardless of who initially holds the rights&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;However, in practice, transaction costs are rarely zero and property rights are not always clearly defined&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;which often complicates private negotiations&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Une alternative est l'utilisation d'instruments économiques tels que les taxes pigouviennes&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;qui cherchent à internaliser les coûts externes en imposant un prix à la pollution, ou la création de marchés pour les permis de polluer&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;où les entreprises peuvent acheter et vendre le droit de polluer&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ces méthodes orientées vers le marché peuvent être plus efficaces et flexibles que les normes strictes&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;car elles permettent aux entreprises de choisir la manière la plus économique de réduire leur pollution et encouragent l'innovation à long terme&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;When private negotiations are not sufficient to resolve externalities&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;government intervention may be necessary. The government may choose to impose standards of behaviour&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;which are direct regulations dictating obligations or prohibitions&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;These standards are easy to understand and can be effective in achieving specific objectives&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;but they can also be rigid and fail to encourage continuous improvement&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En définitive&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;le choix des &lt;/del&gt;instruments &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;de politique environnementale dépend de nombreux facteurs&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;y compris la &lt;/del&gt;nature &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;de l'externalité&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la &lt;/del&gt;structure &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;de l'industrie concernée&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et les objectifs spécifiques de la politique&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Un mélange de réglementations directes et d'&lt;/del&gt;instruments &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;économiques peut souvent fournir un équilibre efficace entre la certitude&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la flexibilité et les incitations à l'&lt;/del&gt;innovation.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;An alternative is the use of economic instruments such as Pigouvian taxes, which seek to internalise external costs by imposing a price on pollution, or the creation of markets for pollution permits, where companies can buy and sell the right to pollute. These market-oriented methods can be more effective and flexible than strict standards, as they allow companies to choose the most cost-effective way of reducing their pollution and encourage innovation over the long term.&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ultimately&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the choice of environmental policy &lt;/ins&gt;instruments &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;depends on many factors&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;including the &lt;/ins&gt;nature &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;of the externality&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the &lt;/ins&gt;structure &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;of the industry concerned&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and the specific objectives of the policy&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;A mix of direct regulation and economic &lt;/ins&gt;instruments &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;can often provide an effective balance between certainty&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;flexibility and incentives for &lt;/ins&gt;innovation.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=Annexes=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=Annexes=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65986&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Analyse Comparative des Mérites et Limites des Permis d'Émission et des Taxes Environnementales */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65986&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T14:55:38Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Analyse Comparative des Mérites et Limites des Permis d&amp;#039;Émission et des Taxes Environnementales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 8 janvier 2024 à 16:55&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l366&quot;&gt;Ligne 366 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 366 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;In short, the Pigouvian tax and the market in pollution permits are two environmental policy tools that attempt to correct the market failures associated with the negative externalities of pollution. Their success will depend on how they are integrated into a broader regulatory framework and on how well they are accepted by the public and business.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;In short, the Pigouvian tax and the market in pollution permits are two environmental policy tools that attempt to correct the market failures associated with the negative externalities of pollution. Their success will depend on how they are integrated into a broader regulatory framework and on how well they are accepted by the public and business.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Analyse &lt;/del&gt;Comparative &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;des Mérites et Limites des Permis d'Émission et des &lt;/del&gt;Taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Environnementales &lt;/del&gt;==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== Comparative &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Analysis of the Merits and Limits of Emission Permits and Environmental &lt;/ins&gt;Taxes ==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les permis à polluer et les &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pigouviennes sont deux des principales méthodes utilisées pour internaliser les externalités négatives de la &lt;/del&gt;pollution. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Bien que les deux visent à atteindre le même objectif de réduction des émissions&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;elles le font par des mécanismes différents&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;chacun ayant ses propres avantages et inconvénients&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pollution permits and pigouvian &lt;/ins&gt;taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;are two of the main methods used to internalise the negative externalities of &lt;/ins&gt;pollution. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Although both aim to achieve the same objective of reducing emissions&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;they do so through different mechanisms&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;each with its own advantages and disadvantages&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les économistes ont tendance à préférer les &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pigouviennes pour plusieurs raisons&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Premièrement&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;elles sont perçues comme moins intrusives dans le fonctionnement du marché&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;car elles permettent aux entreprises de choisir la manière dont elles vont s'ajuster à la taxe&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Au lieu de dicter comment et où réduire les émissions&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;encouragent les entreprises à trouver les méthodes les plus rentables pour elles&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cela peut conduire à des innovations technologiques&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;car les entreprises cherchent à réduire le montant des taxes à payer&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Un autre avantage est l'effet d'incitation à &lt;/del&gt;long &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;terme&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En taxant la &lt;/del&gt;pollution, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les gouvernements créent un incitatif financier continu pour les entreprises à investir dans la recherche et le développement de &lt;/del&gt;technologies &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;moins polluantes&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cela peut conduire à des améliorations durables dans l'efficacité énergétique et dans la réduction des polluants&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Economists tend to prefer Pigouvian &lt;/ins&gt;taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;for several reasons&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Firstly&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;they are seen as less intrusive into the workings of the market&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;because they allow businesses to choose how they will adjust to the tax&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Instead of dictating how and where to reduce emissions&lt;/ins&gt;, taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;encourage companies to find the most cost-effective methods for themselves&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This can lead to technological innovation&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;as companies seek to reduce the amount of tax they have to pay&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Another advantage is the &lt;/ins&gt;long&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;-term incentive effect&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;By taxing &lt;/ins&gt;pollution, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;governments create an ongoing financial incentive for companies to invest in the research and development of cleaner &lt;/ins&gt;technologies. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This can lead to lasting improvements in energy efficiency and the reduction of pollutants&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cependant&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pigouviennes ont aussi des désavantages&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;L'un des principaux problèmes est que le gouvernement doit déterminer le coût &lt;/del&gt;social &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;exact de la &lt;/del&gt;pollution &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pour fixer la taxe à un niveau qui va internaliser les coûts externes&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cela peut être extrêmement difficile&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;car les dommages causés par la &lt;/del&gt;pollution &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;peuvent varier considérablement en fonction de nombreux facteurs&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;y compris la géographie&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la densité de &lt;/del&gt;population, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et la sensibilité des écosystèmes locaux&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Si la taxe est fixée trop bas&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;elle ne réduira pas suffisamment la &lt;/del&gt;pollution ; &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;si elle est fixée trop haut&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;elle pourrait imposer des coûts inutilement élevés aux entreprises et aux consommateurs&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;However&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pigouvian &lt;/ins&gt;taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;also have disadvantages&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;One of the main problems is that the government has to determine the exact &lt;/ins&gt;social &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;cost of &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;in order to set the tax at a level that will internalise the external costs&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This can be extremely difficult&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;as the damage caused by &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;can vary considerably depending on many factors&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;including geography&lt;/ins&gt;, population &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;density&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and the sensitivity of local ecosystems&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;If the tax is set too low&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;it will not reduce &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;sufficiently&lt;/ins&gt;; &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;if it is set too high&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;it could impose unnecessarily high costs on businesses and consumers&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pigouviennes sont donc souvent préférées pour leur flexibilité et leur potentiel d'&lt;/del&gt;innovation, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;mais elles nécessitent une connaissance précise des dommages sociaux causés par la &lt;/del&gt;pollution, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ce qui est difficile à quantifier&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;La décision entre l'utilisation de &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ou de permis dépendra des circonstances spécifiques&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;des objectifs de politique environnementale&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ainsi que de la capacité de l'État à recueillir l&lt;/del&gt;'information &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;nécessaire et à ajuster les politiques en conséquence&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En pratique&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;une combinaison des deux approches&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;voire d'autres &lt;/del&gt;instruments &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;de politique&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;peut être nécessaire pour gérer efficacement la &lt;/del&gt;pollution &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et protéger l'environnement tout en maintenant l'efficacité économique&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pigouvian &lt;/ins&gt;taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;are therefore often preferred for their flexibility and potential for &lt;/ins&gt;innovation, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;but they require precise knowledge of the social damage caused by &lt;/ins&gt;pollution, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;which is difficult to quantify&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The decision whether to use &lt;/ins&gt;taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;or permits will depend on the specific circumstances&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;environmental policy objectives&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and the state&lt;/ins&gt;'&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;s ability to gather the necessary &lt;/ins&gt;information &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and adjust policies accordingly&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;In practice&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;a combination of both approaches&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and indeed other policy &lt;/ins&gt;instruments, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;may be needed to manage &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;effectively and protect the environment while maintaining economic efficiency&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les &lt;/del&gt;restrictions &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ou réglementations directes sur la pollution sont souvent privilégiées pour leur simplicité et la certitude qu'elles fournissent tant aux régulateurs qu'aux entreprises&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Elles prescrivent des limites d'émissions spécifiques qui doivent être respectées&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ce qui peut être particulièrement avantageux dans des &lt;/del&gt;situations &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;où il y &lt;/del&gt;a &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;un manque d'informations sur les coûts sociaux précis de la &lt;/del&gt;pollution. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ces réglementations établissent des normes claires et fournissent des résultats prévisibles &lt;/del&gt;: &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les entreprises savent ce qu'on attend d'elles et les régulateurs ont un cadre clair pour le suivi et l'application&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En revanche&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ces réglementations présentent des inconvénients significatifs en termes d'incitation à l'amélioration&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Une fois qu'une entreprise respecte la norme&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;il n'y a souvent peu ou pas d'incitation à réduire davantage la &lt;/del&gt;pollution. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cela peut conduire à un état de complaisance où les entreprises se contentent de respecter les normes sans chercher à exceller en matière de performances environnementales&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;De plus&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les réglementations peuvent introduire des distorsions économiques en n'encourageant pas les entreprises à chercher des méthodes de réduction des coûts&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Elles pourraient se trouver bloquées avec des &lt;/del&gt;technologies &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;coûteuses spécifiquement conçues pour répondre aux exigences réglementaires&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;sans explorer d'autres &lt;/del&gt;options &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;potentiellement plus efficaces ou moins coûteuses&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Direct pollution &lt;/ins&gt;restrictions &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;or regulations are often preferred for their simplicity and the certainty they provide to both regulators and companies&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;They prescribe specific emission limits that must be met&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;which can be particularly beneficial in &lt;/ins&gt;situations &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;where there is &lt;/ins&gt;a &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;lack of information about the precise social costs of &lt;/ins&gt;pollution. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;These regulations set clear standards and provide predictable results&lt;/ins&gt;: &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;companies know what is expected of them and regulators have a clear framework for monitoring and enforcement&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;On the other hand&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;these regulations have significant disadvantages in terms of providing incentives for improvement&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Once a company complies with the standard&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;there is often little or no incentive to reduce &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;further&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This can lead to a state of complacency where companies are content to comply with standards without seeking to excel in environmental performance&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;In addition&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;regulations can introduce economic distortions by not encouraging companies to look for ways to reduce costs&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;They could find themselves stuck with expensive &lt;/ins&gt;technologies &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;specifically designed to meet regulatory requirements&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;without exploring other potentially more efficient or less costly &lt;/ins&gt;options.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les coûts associés à la conformité avec les réglementations peuvent également être élevés&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les &lt;/del&gt;technologies &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;nécessaires pour atteindre les &lt;/del&gt;standards &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;peuvent être chères&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et ces coûts supplémentaires sont souvent répercutés sur les consommateurs&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cela peut avoir des répercussions sur le marché en termes de compétitivité et d'accessibilité&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;car les prix des biens et &lt;/del&gt;services &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;augmentent pour couvrir les investissements en &lt;/del&gt;capital &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et les coûts d'exploitation accrus&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les restrictions sont donc un outil &lt;/del&gt;important &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;dans la boîte à outils de la politique environnementale&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;fournissant une garantie que certains niveaux d'émissions ne seront pas dépassés&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cependant&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;elles peuvent être rigides et ne pas favoriser l'&lt;/del&gt;innovation &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et l'amélioration continue au-delà des exigences minimales&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ainsi&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;un mélange de réglementations directes avec d'autres &lt;/del&gt;instruments &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;économiques tels que les &lt;/del&gt;taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pigouviennes et les systèmes de permis d'émission négociables peut offrir un compromis entre la certitude&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la flexibilité et l'incitation à l'&lt;/del&gt;innovation, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;conduisant à une approche plus nuancée et efficace de la gestion de la &lt;/del&gt;pollution.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The costs associated with regulatory compliance can also be high&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The &lt;/ins&gt;technologies &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;required to meet &lt;/ins&gt;standards &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;can be expensive&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and these additional costs are often passed on to consumers&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This can have repercussions on the market in terms of competitiveness and accessibility&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;as the prices of goods and &lt;/ins&gt;services &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;rise to cover increased &lt;/ins&gt;capital &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;investment and operating costs&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Restrictions are therefore an &lt;/ins&gt;important &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;tool in the environmental policy toolbox&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;providing a guarantee that certain emission levels will not be exceeded&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;However&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;they can be rigid and not conducive to &lt;/ins&gt;innovation &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and continuous improvement beyond the minimum requirements&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Thus&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;a mix of direct regulation with other economic &lt;/ins&gt;instruments &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;such as Pigouvian &lt;/ins&gt;taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and tradable emission permit systems can offer a compromise between certainty&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;flexibility and incentives for &lt;/ins&gt;innovation, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;leading to a more nuanced and effective approach to &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;management&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=Synthèse des Concepts et Stratégies Abordés=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=Synthèse des Concepts et Stratégies Abordés=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65985&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Taxes Pigouviennes et Permis de Pollution: Une Évaluation de leur Équivalence */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65985&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T14:44:15Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Taxes Pigouviennes et Permis de Pollution: Une Évaluation de leur Équivalence&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 8 janvier 2024 à 16:44&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l352&quot;&gt;Ligne 352 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 352 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;For the cap-and-trade system to work effectively, it is crucial that the emissions cap is set at a level that reflects genuine pollution reduction objectives and that it is gradually lowered over time to encourage continued reductions. In addition, the permit allocation process must be transparent and fair to prevent market manipulation and ensure fair and effective competition.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;For the cap-and-trade system to work effectively, it is crucial that the emissions cap is set at a level that reflects genuine pollution reduction objectives and that it is gradually lowered over time to encourage continued reductions. In addition, the permit allocation process must be transparent and fair to prevent market manipulation and ensure fair and effective competition.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== Taxes &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pigouviennes et Permis de &lt;/del&gt;Pollution: &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Une Évaluation de leur Équivalence &lt;/del&gt;==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pigouvian &lt;/ins&gt;Taxes &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and &lt;/ins&gt;Pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Permits&lt;/ins&gt;: &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;An Assessment of their Equivalence &lt;/ins&gt;==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les graphiques ci-dessou comparent les approches de la taxe pigouvienne et des permis d'émission négociables pour réguler la &lt;/del&gt;pollution. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ces deux mécanismes visent à réduire la &lt;/del&gt;pollution &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;en imposant des coûts aux pollueurs&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;mais ils fonctionnent de manière légèrement différente.[[Fichier:Equivalence des taxes pigouviennes et des droits à polluer 1.png|400px|vignette|centré]]Taxe Pigouvienne (Graphique a) : La taxe pigouvienne est un prix fixé par l'État sur la pollution. Ce prix est conçu pour refléter le coût externe que la pollution impose à la société. Le graphique montre une ligne horizontale à un prix déterminé par la taxe. Le point où cette ligne coupe la courbe de demande de la pollution indique la quantité de pollution qui sera produite au prix fixé par la taxe. Les entreprises polluantes paieront la taxe pour chaque unité de pollution qu'elles émettent, et cette taxe est censée inciter les entreprises à réduire leurs émissions jusqu'à ce que le coût marginal de réduction de la pollution soit égal à la taxe. Le principal avantage de cette approche est qu'elle permet aux entreprises de décider comment elles vont réduire la pollution, leur donnant la flexibilité pour trouver les solutions les moins coûteuses. Cependant, le niveau de pollution résultant n'est pas garanti car il dépend de la réaction des entreprises à la taxe. Si la taxe est trop basse, la pollution pourrait rester élevée ; si elle est trop élevée, elle pourrait imposer des coûts excessifs aux entreprises&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The graphs below compare the Pigouvian tax and tradable emission permits approaches to regulating &lt;/ins&gt;pollution. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Both mechanisms aim to reduce &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;by imposing costs on polluters&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;but they work in slightly different ways&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Marché des Permis à Polluer (Graphique b) &lt;/del&gt;: &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Dans le système de cap-and-trade, également connu sous le nom de marché &lt;/del&gt;des &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;permis à polluer, l'État fixe un plafond sur la quantité totale de pollution qui peut être émise. Des permis correspondant à ce plafond sont distribués ou vendus aux entreprises polluantes. Ces permis sont négociables, ce qui signifie que les entreprises qui peuvent réduire la pollution à moindre coût vont vendre leurs permis excédentaires à d'autres entreprises pour qui la réduction est plus onéreuse. Le graphique montre que le prix des permis est déterminé par le point où la courbe d'offre de permis (qui est verticale car le nombre de permis est fixe) coupe la courbe de demande &lt;/del&gt;des &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;entreprises pour le droit &lt;/del&gt;à polluer. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;L'avantage de ce système est qu'il garantit un niveau de pollution ne dépassant pas le plafond fixé. Toutefois, le prix des permis peut varier et peut être difficile à prévoir, ce qui peut créer de l'incertitude pour les entreprises.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;[[Fichier&lt;/ins&gt;:&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Equivalence &lt;/ins&gt;des &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;taxes pigouviennes et &lt;/ins&gt;des &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;droits &lt;/ins&gt;à polluer &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;png|400px|vignette|centré]]&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Le choix entre la taxe pigouvienne et le marché des permis dépend des objectifs spécifiques et des conditions du marché&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Si le principal objectif est de garantir un niveau maximal de &lt;/del&gt;pollution, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;le marché des permis est plus approprié&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Si l'objectif est d'inciter les entreprises à innover et à trouver des moyens rentables de réduire la &lt;/del&gt;pollution, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la taxe pigouvienne peut être préférable en raison de la flexibilité qu'elle offre&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Les deux systèmes doivent faire face à des défis liés à leur mise en œuvre&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;notamment la nécessité de mesurer précisément la &lt;/del&gt;pollution &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et de surveiller la conformité. Les lobbies peuvent exercer une influence importante sur la fixation des prix des taxes ou sur le nombre de permis distribués&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ce qui peut compromettre l'efficacité de chaque système&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;De plus&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les deux mécanismes peuvent avoir des conséquences sociales et économiques, telles que le transfert de coûts vers les consommateurs&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'impact sur la compétitivité des entreprises et la nécessité d'une transition juste pour les travailleurs des industries affectées&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pigouvian tax (Graph a): The Pigouvian tax is a price set by the state on pollution. This price is designed to reflect the external cost that pollution imposes on society. The graph shows a horizontal line at a price determined by the tax&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The point where this line intersects the &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;demand curve indicates the quantity of pollution that will be produced at the price set by the tax. Polluting companies will pay the tax for each unit of pollution they emit&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and this tax is supposed to encourage companies to reduce their emissions until the marginal cost of reducing pollution is equal to the tax&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The main advantage of this approach is that it allows companies to decide how they will reduce &lt;/ins&gt;pollution, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;giving them the flexibility to find the cheapest solutions&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;However&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the resulting level of &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;is not guaranteed&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;as it depends on how businesses react to the tax&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;If the tax is too low&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pollution could remain high; if it is too high&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;it could impose excessive costs on businesses&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En somme&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la taxe pigouvienne et le marché des permis à polluer sont deux outils de politique environnementale qui tentent de corriger les défaillances du marché liées aux externalités négatives de la &lt;/del&gt;pollution. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Leur succès dépendra de la manière dont ils sont intégrés dans un cadre réglementaire plus large et de leur acceptation par le &lt;/del&gt;public &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et les entreprises&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pollution Permit Market (Graph b): In the cap-and-trade system&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;also known as the pollution permit market, the state sets a cap on the total amount of pollution that can be emitted. Permits corresponding to this cap are distributed or sold to polluting companies. These permits are tradable, which means that companies that can reduce pollution more cheaply will sell their surplus permits to other companies for whom the reduction is more expensive. The graph shows that the price of permits is determined by the point at which the permit supply curve (which is vertical because the number of permits is fixed) intersects the demand curve for the right to pollute. The advantage of this system is that it guarantees a level of pollution that does not exceed the set ceiling. However, the price of permits can vary and can be difficult to predict, which can create uncertainty for companies.&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The choice between the Pigouvian tax and the permit market depends on the specific objectives and market conditions. If the main objective is to guarantee a maximum level of pollution, the permit market is more appropriate. If the objective is to encourage companies to innovate and find cost-effective ways of reducing pollution, the Pigouvian tax may be preferable because of the flexibility it offers. Both systems face implementation challenges, including the need to accurately measure pollution and monitor compliance. Lobbies can exert significant influence over the setting of tax prices or the number of permits distributed, which can compromise the effectiveness of each system. In addition, both mechanisms can have social and economic consequences, such as the transfer of costs to consumers, the impact on business competitiveness and the need for a fair transition for workers in the affected industries.&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;In short, the Pigouvian tax and the market in pollution permits are two environmental policy tools that attempt to correct the market failures associated with the negative externalities of &lt;/ins&gt;pollution. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Their success will depend on how they are integrated into a broader regulatory framework and on how well they are accepted by the &lt;/ins&gt;public &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;and business&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== Analyse Comparative des Mérites et Limites des Permis d'Émission et des Taxes Environnementales ==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== Analyse Comparative des Mérites et Limites des Permis d'Émission et des Taxes Environnementales ==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65984&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* L'Action Publique Face aux Externalités */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65984&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T14:43:36Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;L&amp;#039;Action Publique Face aux Externalités&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;amp;diff=65984&amp;amp;oldid=65983&quot;&gt;Voir les modifications&lt;/a&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65983&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Practical Illustration: A Negotiated Agreement in Detail */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65983&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T14:42:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Practical Illustration: A Negotiated Agreement in Detail&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 8 janvier 2024 à 16:42&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l289&quot;&gt;Ligne 289 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 289 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The total cost to Toxico is made up of two parts:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The total cost to Toxico is made up of two parts:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;#The cost of buying the right to smoke, which corresponds to area D+E in the graph. This is calculated as the price per cigarette multiplied by the number of cigarettes smoked, i.e. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;7 \times 14 = 98&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF. #The cost associated with abstaining from the 6 cigarettes he decided not to smoke, corresponding to area C. This cost is represented by the area of a triangle with a base of 6 (the number of cigarettes not smoked) and a height of 7 (the marginal cost of the sixth cigarette not smoked, which starts at CHF 1 for the first cigarette not smoked and increases by CHF 1 for each additional cigarette). Therefore, the area of this triangle is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2} \times 6 \times 7 = 21&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF. The total cost to Toxico is therefore CHF 98 for buying the rights to smoke plus CHF 21 for the cost of abstinence, making a total of CHF 119. However, if he hadn't bought the rights to smoke, smoking all the cigarettes would have cost him CHF 220. So, by not smoking those 6 cigarettes, he makes a gain of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;220 - 119 = 101&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF, which corresponds to area F.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;#The cost of buying the right to smoke, which corresponds to area D+E in the graph. This is calculated as the price per cigarette multiplied by the number of cigarettes smoked, i.e. &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;7 \times 14 = 98&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF.  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;#The cost associated with abstaining from the 6 cigarettes he decided not to smoke, corresponding to area C. This cost is represented by the area of a triangle with a base of 6 (the number of cigarettes not smoked) and a height of 7 (the marginal cost of the sixth cigarette not smoked, which starts at CHF 1 for the first cigarette not smoked and increases by CHF 1 for each additional cigarette). Therefore, the area of this triangle is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;\frac{1}{2} \times 6 \times 7 = 21&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF. The total cost to Toxico is therefore CHF 98 for buying the rights to smoke plus CHF 21 for the cost of abstinence, making a total of CHF 119. However, if he hadn't bought the rights to smoke, smoking all the cigarettes would have cost him CHF 220. So, by not smoking those 6 cigarettes, he makes a gain of &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;220 - 119 = 101&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF, which corresponds to area F.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Asmatico, on the other hand, is prepared to accept this arrangement because up to the thirteenth cigarette, his marginal benefit from not suffering the smoke is less than CHF 7, which is less than he receives from Toxico. He suffers a cost associated with the passive smoke from the 14 cigarettes that Toxico smokes, which corresponds to surface D, valued at CHF 49. However, he earns CHF 98 from Toxico for the right to smoke. So his net gain is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;98 - 49 = 49&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF, corresponding to surface E.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;Asmatico, on the other hand, is prepared to accept this arrangement because up to the thirteenth cigarette, his marginal benefit from not suffering the smoke is less than CHF 7, which is less than he receives from Toxico. He suffers a cost associated with the passive smoke from the 14 cigarettes that Toxico smokes, which corresponds to surface D, valued at CHF 49. However, he earns CHF 98 from Toxico for the right to smoke. So his net gain is &amp;lt;math&amp;gt;98 - 49 = 49&amp;lt;/math&amp;gt; CHF, corresponding to surface E.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65982&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Illustration Pratique: Un Accord Négocié en Détail */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65982&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T14:39:22Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Illustration Pratique: Un Accord Négocié en Détail&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;amp;diff=65982&amp;amp;oldid=65981&quot;&gt;Voir les modifications&lt;/a&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65981&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Les Approches Privées pour Gérer les Externalités */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65981&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T13:24:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Les Approches Privées pour Gérer les Externalités&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;amp;diff=65981&amp;amp;oldid=65980&quot;&gt;Voir les modifications&lt;/a&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65980&amp;oldid=prev</id>
		<title>Arthur : /* Méthodes d'Internalisation des Externalités */</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://baripedia.org/index.php?title=Externalities_and_the_role_of_government&amp;diff=65980&amp;oldid=prev"/>
		<updated>2024-01-08T13:22:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;autocomment&quot;&gt;Méthodes d&amp;#039;Internalisation des Externalités&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122;&quot; data-mw=&quot;interface&quot;&gt;
				&lt;col class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; /&gt;
				&lt;col class=&quot;diff-content&quot; /&gt;
				&lt;col class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; /&gt;
				&lt;col class=&quot;diff-content&quot; /&gt;
				&lt;tr class=&quot;diff-title&quot; lang=&quot;fr&quot;&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;← Version précédente&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Version du 8 janvier 2024 à 15:22&lt;/td&gt;
				&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot; id=&quot;mw-diff-left-l192&quot;&gt;Ligne 192 :&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-lineno&quot;&gt;Ligne 192 :&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The graph suggests that an intervention, such as subsidies or public provision of the good or service, might be required to increase production from Q∗PRIVEE to Q∗SOCIALE, thereby eliminating the deadweight loss. This would allow society to reap the full social benefits of the good or service, improving overall welfare.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;The graph suggests that an intervention, such as subsidies or public provision of the good or service, might be required to increase production from Q∗PRIVEE to Q∗SOCIALE, thereby eliminating the deadweight loss. This would allow society to reap the full social benefits of the good or service, improving overall welfare.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;==&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Méthodes d'Internalisation des Externalités&lt;/del&gt;==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;== &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Methods for Internalising Externalities &lt;/ins&gt;==&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;L'internalisation des externalités est un concept central dans la théorie économique qui vise à résoudre les inefficacités du marché causées par les effets externes des activités économiques. Lorsque des externalités sont présentes, qu'elles soient positives ou négatives, les coûts ou bénéfices ne sont pas entièrement reflétés dans le marché. Les individus ou entreprises qui génèrent ces externalités ne subissent pas les coûts ou ne reçoivent pas les bénéfices associés à leurs actions, ce qui les conduit à prendre des décisions qui ne sont pas socialement optimales.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-added&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pour internaliser une externalité négative&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;on pourrait imposer une taxe qui reflète le coût externe (comme une taxe sur les émissions de carbone pour les pollueurs)&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;de sorte que le coût privé de l'activité inclut maintenant le coût externe&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En conséquence&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les producteurs et consommateurs auraient une incitation à réduire la production ou la consommation de ce bien à un niveau plus proche de l'&lt;/del&gt;optimal &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;social&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The internalisation of externalities is a central concept in economic theory which aims to resolve market inefficiencies caused by the external effects of economic activities. When externalities are present&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;whether positive or negative&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the costs or benefits are not fully reflected in the market&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The individuals or companies that generate these externalities do not incur the costs or receive the benefits associated with their actions&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;which leads them to make decisions that are not socially &lt;/ins&gt;optimal.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;À l'inverse&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;pour internaliser une externalité positive&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'État pourrait offrir des subventions ou des crédits d'impôt qui augmentent les bénéfices privés pour qu'ils reflètent mieux les bénéfices sociaux&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cela encouragerait une plus grande &lt;/del&gt;production &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ou consommation du bien, comme dans le cas des vaccinations ou de l'éducation&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;To internalise a negative externality&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;we could impose a tax that reflects the external cost (such as a carbon tax on polluters)&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;so that the private cost of the activity now includes the external cost&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;As a result, producers and consumers would have an incentive to reduce &lt;/ins&gt;production &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;or consumption of the good to a level closer to the social optimum&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;La solution privée à l'internalisation des externalités&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;souvent associée au théorème de Coase, stipule que si les droits de propriété sont bien définis et que les coûts de transaction sont faibles&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les parties impliquées peuvent négocier une solution sans intervention extérieure&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Par exemple, si une entreprise pollue une rivière et nuit ainsi aux pêcheurs en aval&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;les pêcheurs pourraient potentiellement payer l'entreprise pour réduire la pollution ou l'entreprise pourrait payer pour les dommages causés. En théorie, tant que les parties peuvent négocier et que leurs droits sont clairement établis, elles peuvent parvenir à une solution qui internalise l'externalité et atteint l'efficacité&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Conversely&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;to internalise a positive externality&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the state could offer subsidies or tax credits that increase private profits so that they better reflect social benefits&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;This would encourage greater production or consumption of the good&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;as in the case of vaccinations or education&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Cependant&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;dans la pratique, les conditions requises pour une solution privée sont souvent difficiles à réaliser. Les droits de propriété peuvent être mal définis ou difficiles à faire respecter&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;et les coûts de &lt;/del&gt;transaction, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;notamment en matière de négociation et d'information, peuvent être prohibitifs&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;De plus&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;lorsque de nombreux agents sont affectés&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;comme c'est souvent le cas avec la &lt;/del&gt;pollution &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;environnementale&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;la coordination entre tous les agents devient pratiquement impossible sans une sorte d'intervention collective. L'internalisation des externalités par des incitations modifiées est cruciale pour atteindre une allocation des ressources qui est non seulement efficace du point de vue du marché mais aussi bénéfique pour la société dans son ensemble. Des politiques bien conçues peuvent aider à réaliser cet équilibre&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;menant à un bien-être social accru&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;The private solution to internalising externalities&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;often associated with the Coase theorem&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;states that if property rights are well defined and &lt;/ins&gt;transaction &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;costs are low&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the parties involved can negotiate a solution without outside intervention&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;if a company pollutes a river and harms fishermen downstream&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the fishermen could potentially pay the company to reduce the &lt;/ins&gt;pollution &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;or the company could pay for the damage caused. In theory&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;as long as the parties can negotiate and their rights are clearly established&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;they can reach a solution that internalises the externality and achieves efficiency&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Dans le contexte des externalités négatives et positives&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'État joue un rôle &lt;/del&gt;crucial &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;en mettant en place des politiques pour corriger les défaillances du marché et pour aligner les résultats du marché avec le bien&lt;/del&gt;-&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;être &lt;/del&gt;social.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;However&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;in practice, the conditions required for a private solution are often difficult to achieve. Property rights may be poorly defined or difficult to enforce, and transaction costs, particularly in terms of negotiation and information, may be prohibitive. Moreover, when many agents are affected, as is often the case with environmental pollution, coordination between all the agents becomes virtually impossible without some kind of collective intervention. Internalising externalities through modified incentives is &lt;/ins&gt;crucial &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;to achieving an allocation of resources that is not only efficient from a market perspective but also beneficial to society as a whole. Well&lt;/ins&gt;-&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;designed policies can help achieve this balance, leading to increased &lt;/ins&gt;social &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;welfare&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pour les externalités négatives&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;où les activités des entreprises ou des individus ont des effets néfastes sur des tiers, l'État peut intervenir de plusieurs façons :&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;In the context of both negative and positive externalities&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the state plays a crucial role in putting policies in place to correct market failures and to align market outcomes with social welfare.&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Normes de Comportement : L'État peut établir des règlements qui limitent directement les activités nuisibles. Ces normes peuvent inclure des restrictions sur la quantité de pollution qu'une usine peut émettre ou des exigences pour l'utilisation de technologies propres.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;For negative externalities&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;where the activities of companies or individuals have harmful effects on third parties&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the state can intervene in several ways:&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Taxes Pigouviennes : Du nom de l'économiste Arthur Pigou&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;ces taxes visent à internaliser le coût des externalités négatives en les incluant dans le coût de production. La taxe est fixée égale au coût de l'externalité pour chaque unité produite&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;encourageant ainsi les producteurs à réduire la production ou à trouver des moyens de production moins nuisibles. En théorie, la taxe pigouvienne devrait être égale au coût marginal externe à la quantité socialement optimale.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-added&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Pour les externalités positives&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;où les actions d'individus ou d'entreprises bénéficient à la société&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'État peut également adopter différentes mesures :&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Behavioural standards: The state can establish regulations that directly limit harmful activities. These standards can include restrictions on the amount of pollution a plant can emit or requirements for the use of clean technologies. &lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Pigouvian taxes: Named after the economist Arthur Pigou, these taxes aim to internalise the cost of negative externalities by including them in the cost of production. The tax is set equal to the cost of the externality for each unit produced&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;thus encouraging producers to reduce production or find less harmful means of production. In theory&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the Pigouvian tax should be equal to the marginal external cost of the socially optimal quantity.&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Obligations et Recommandations : Des politiques peuvent être mises en place pour encourager des comportements qui produisent des externalités positives. Par exemple&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;des campagnes de santé publique pour encourager la vaccination ou l'éducation pour promouvoir des pratiques bénéfiques pour la société.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;For positive externalities&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;where the actions of individuals or companies benefit society&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the state can also adopt various measures&lt;/ins&gt;:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Subventions : En subventionnant la production d'un bien qui génère des externalités positives&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'État peut réduire le coût pour les producteurs et les inciter à augmenter la production. Cela peut inclure, par exemple, des subventions pour l'énergie renouvelable ou pour la recherche et le développement dans des domaines d'intérêt public.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-added&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Droits de Propriété &lt;/del&gt;: &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Conférer des droits de propriété ou des brevets sur les innovations peut encourager la création et la diffusion de technologies ou d'idées bénéfiques. Cela permet aux innovateurs de bénéficier directement des avantages de leurs inventions, qui autrement pourraient être sous-produites en raison de la nature non exclusive de leurs bénéfices.&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-added&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;−&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;Ces politiques visent à aligner les incitations privées avec les avantages ou coûts sociaux&lt;/del&gt;, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;de manière à ce que les activités économiques reflètent plus fidèlement leur véritable coût ou valeur pour la société&lt;/del&gt;. &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;En ajustant soigneusement ces &lt;/del&gt;interventions, &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;l'État vise à atteindre une &lt;/del&gt;allocation &lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;des ressources qui maximise le bien&lt;/del&gt;-&lt;del style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;être social&lt;/del&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Obligations and Recommendations : Policies can be put in place to encourage behaviour that produces positive externalities. For example, public health campaigns to encourage vaccination or education to promote practices that benefit society. &lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Subsidies: By subsidising the production of a good that generates positive externalities, the state can reduce the cost to producers and encourage them to increase production. This can include, for example, subsidies for renewable energy or for research and development in areas of public interest. &lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;# Property rights: Granting property rights or patents on innovations can encourage the creation and dissemination of beneficial technologies or ideas. This allows innovators to benefit directly from their inventions, which might otherwise be under-produced due to the non-excludable nature of their benefits.&lt;/ins&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;diff-side-deleted&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot; data-marker=&quot;+&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;These policies aim to align private incentives with social benefits or costs&lt;/ins&gt;, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;so that economic activities more accurately reflect their true cost or value to society&lt;/ins&gt;. &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;By carefully adjusting these &lt;/ins&gt;interventions, &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;the state aims to achieve an &lt;/ins&gt;allocation &lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;of resources that maximises social well&lt;/ins&gt;-&lt;ins style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;being&lt;/ins&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=Les Approches Privées pour Gérer les Externalités=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;diff-marker&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;div&gt;=Les Approches Privées pour Gérer les Externalités=&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Arthur</name></author>
	</entry>
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