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= 革命还是反动? =
= 革命还是反动? =


历史学家目前正在争论,美国革命应该被视为一场真正的 "革命",还是仅仅是对英国统治的保守反应。
Historians are currently debating whether the American Revolution should be considered a true 'revolution' or simply a conservative reaction to British rule.


美国革命是一场真正的革命,还是仅仅是对英国统治的保守反应,这个问题在历史学家中仍有争论。那些将革命视为根本性动荡的人提出了几个令人信服的论点。首先,美国革命彻底背离了传统的君主制度。革命不是简单地用一个君主取代另一个君主,而是催生了一个由民选代表行使权力的共和国。这一政治变革并非简单的调整:它标志着一个以人民主权为基础的国家的诞生,与欧洲的世袭君主制直接对立。在这一动荡时期,启蒙运动的思想也得到了采纳。受约翰-洛克和孟德斯鸠等思想家的影响,国父们接受了不可剥夺的权利和社会契约等激进理念。在此过程中,他们摒弃了君主神权至上的旧观念,接受了政府权力来自被统治者同意的愿景。更重要的是,革命不仅改变了国家的政治结构。它还引发了一场文化和社会变革。虽然社会没有立即发生变革,但平等主义思想开始深入人心,为后来的平等运动,如废除奴隶制和女权运动铺平了道路。
The question of whether the American Revolution was a genuine revolution or simply a conservative reaction to British rule remains a subject of debate among historians. Those who regard the Revolution as a fundamental upheaval put forward several convincing arguments. Firstly, the American Revolution represented a radical departure from the traditional monarchical system. Rather than simply replacing one monarch with another, the Revolution gave birth to a republic, where power emanates from elected representatives. This political transformation was no mere adjustment: it marked the birth of a nation based on the sovereignty of the people, in direct opposition to the hereditary monarchies of Europe. This period of upheaval also saw the adoption of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Influenced by thinkers such as John Locke and Montesquieu, the Founding Fathers embraced radical notions such as inalienable rights and the social contract. In doing so, they rejected the old belief in the divine supremacy of monarchs and embraced the vision of a government whose power derives from the consent of the governed. What's more, the Revolution didn't just change the country's political structure. It initiated a cultural and social transformation. Although society was not instantly transformed, ideas of egalitarianism began to take hold, paving the way for later movements for equality, such as the abolition of slavery and the women's rights movement.


另一方面,另一个历史学家阵营认为美国革命更像是一场保守的反动,而非激进的革命。他们的论点主要基于革命的根本动机。根据这一观点,争取独立的斗争与其说是为了创造全新的事物,不如说是为了维护和恢复殖民者眼中的传统权利。这些他们认为被英国践踏的权利包括基本的经济自由,如贸易自由。英国的法律和税收,如《印花税法》和《茶叶法》,在他们看来不是创新,而是对他们传统特权的不公平侵犯。此外,在研究革命后的美国宪法时,一些人看到了保守的因素。宪法中的许多内容,如两院制,并不是从零开始建立一种新的政府形式,而是受到英国传统和其他欧洲模式的启发。宪法寻求平衡,在保障权利的同时避免 "多数人暴政 "的风险,这可以解释为一种保护财产权和企业权的保守做法。因此,在这些历史学家看来,美国革命与其说是与过去彻底决裂,不如说是殖民者认为受到不公正侵犯的权利和传统的演变和肯定。
On the other hand, another camp of historians sees the American Revolution more as a conservative reaction than a radical revolution. Their argument is based primarily on the underlying motive of the Revolution. According to this perspective, the struggle for independence was less a quest to create something radically new than a desire to preserve and restore what the colonists saw as their traditional rights. These rights, which they felt had been trampled underfoot by Britain, included essential economic freedoms such as the freedom to trade. British laws and taxes, such as the Stamp Act and the Tea Act, were seen not as innovations, but rather as unfair intrusions into what they saw as their traditional prerogatives. Furthermore, when looking at the US Constitution that followed the Revolution, some see conservative elements. Rather than building a new form of government from scratch, many of its elements, such as bicameralism, were inspired by British traditions and other European models. The Constitution sought to strike a balance, guaranteeing rights while avoiding the risk of "tyranny of the majority", which can be interpreted as a conservative approach to protecting property and enterprise rights. Thus, for these historians, the American Revolution can be seen less as a complete break with the past than as an evolution and affirmation of the rights and traditions that the colonists felt had been unjustly violated.


尽管美国革命存在各种细微差别和矛盾,但它代表了世界历史上的一个决定性时刻。它不仅是对英国枷锁的反抗,也是席卷欧洲的启蒙运动理想的体现。人民主权和不可剥夺权利等概念的出现反映了政治和社会思想的彻底转变,摆脱了君主制和贵族统治的旧秩序。美国作为一个新成立的国家,试图通过这些大胆的新思想来建立民主政府。他们不再依赖君主或世袭精英,而是构想建立一个权力来自人民的共和国。美国宪法》虽然受到许多先例的启发,但在三权分立和公民自由的概念上具有创新性。美国革命塑造国家与公民之间关系的方式也具有创新性。在世界许多地方,公民身份的概念以前受出生或社会地位的限制,而美国革命则将其转变为一种基于出生地、居住地、甚至对一套民主原则的信仰的概念。然而,革命也继承和保留了过去的某些因素,尤其是在社会结构和经济不平等方面。奴隶制和原住民地位等问题给革命宣称的理想蒙上了一层阴影。最终,美国革命虽然植根于与英国的冲突和紧张局势,却成为一个变革性事件,在与自身内部矛盾斗争的同时,建立了一个以民主原则为基础的新国家。
The American Revolution, despite its various nuances and contradictions, represents a decisive moment in world history. It was not just a rejection of the British yoke, but also a manifestation of the Enlightenment ideals that had swept across Europe. The emergence of concepts such as popular sovereignty and inalienable rights reflected a radical shift in political and social thinking away from the old order in which monarchy and aristocracy dominated. The United States, as a newly formed country, attempted to navigate through these bold new ideas to establish democratic government. Instead of relying on a monarch or a hereditary elite, they conceived of a republic, where power emanated from the people. The American Constitution, although inspired by many precedents, was innovative in its separation of powers and its conception of civil liberties. The way in which the American Revolution shaped the relationship between the state and its citizens was also innovative. The concept of citizenship, previously limited by birth or social status in many parts of the world, was transformed into an idea based on place of birth, residence, or even belief in a set of democratic principles. Nevertheless, the Revolution also inherited and preserved certain elements of the past, particularly in terms of social structure and economic inequality. Issues such as slavery and the status of indigenous peoples cast a shadow over the Revolution's proclaimed ideals. Ultimately, the American Revolution, while rooted in conflict and tension with Great Britain, emerged as a transformative event, forging a new nation based on democratic principles while struggling with its own internal contradictions.


革命就其本质而言,是激烈变革和动荡的时刻。当现状不再满足大部分人口的需求或愿望时,革命就会发生。在革命进程中,有四个关键因素往往十分突出:
Revolutions, by their very nature, are moments of intense change and turmoil. They occur when the status quo no longer meets the needs or aspirations of a significant proportion of the population. Four key elements often stand out in the revolutionary process:
# Mass mobilisation of the population: A revolution requires collective energy. When frustration or injustice reaches a critical point, a large section of society mobilises to demand change. Uprisings, demonstrations and other forms of protest reflect the popular desire to overthrow an oppressive regime or system. The energy of these masses is the engine that propels the revolution forward.
# Struggle between different ideologies: Every revolution brings with it a panoply of visions for the future. These competing visions can be divisive. Some may aspire to a liberal democracy, while others may envisage a dictatorship of the proletariat or a theocracy. This jumble of ideologies determines the direction and character of the revolution.
# Concrete struggle for power: Ideologies aside, a revolution is a tangible competition for control. Rival factions, armed or unarmed, clash to establish their hegemony. This struggle can be brutal, often involving conflict, purges, political intrigue and, in some cases, civil war.
# Profound transformation of structures: The ultimate goal of a revolution is change. This goes far beyond simply replacing a leader or an elite. Revolutions seek to reshape the fundamental structures of society, whether by redistributing land, nationalising industries, establishing new laws or rebuilding national identity.


# 大规模动员民众: 革命需要集体的力量。当挫折或不公正达到临界点时,社会中的大部分人都会动员起来要求变革。起义、示威和其他形式的抗议反映了民众推翻专制政权或制度的愿望。这些群众的能量是推动革命前进的引擎。
In short, a revolution is more than just a series of protests or a coup d'état. It is a profound process that challenges and often transforms the foundations of a society. These four elements, although not the only determining factors, are often at the heart of these upheavals.
# 不同意识形态之间的斗争: 每一场革命都会带来对未来的各种设想。这些相互竞争的愿景可能会造成分裂。一些人可能向往自由民主,而另一些人则可能憧憬无产阶级专政或神权统治。这些杂乱的意识形态决定了革命的方向和特点。
# 具体的权力斗争:抛开意识形态不谈,革命是一场实实在在的控制权争夺战。武装或非武装的对立派别为建立自己的霸权而发生冲突。这种斗争可能是残酷的,往往涉及冲突、清洗、政治阴谋,有时甚至是内战。
# 结构的深刻变革: 革命的最终目标是变革。这远不止更换领导人或精英那么简单。革命寻求重塑社会的基本结构,无论是通过重新分配土地、工业国有化、制定新法律还是重建国家认同。


简而言之,革命不仅仅是一系列抗议或政变。它是一个深刻的过程,挑战并往往改变一个社会的基础。这四个要素虽然不是唯一的决定因素,但往往是这些动荡的核心。
Revolutions vary according to the social, economic, political and historical contexts that give rise to them. While some can radically alter the social and economic landscape of a nation, others focus more on political change, leaving the underlying structures largely intact. The American Revolution is a case in point. It led to a significant break with Britain and the establishment of a new republican form of government. However, the colonial agricultural economy, largely dependent on slavery in the South, remained largely unchanged after the war. Social structures based on race and class also persisted, leading to later conflict and reform. By comparison, the Revolution in Santo Domingo went far beyond simply overthrowing the ruling elites. It led to the abolition of slavery in the colony, the liquidation of white landowners, and the emergence of Haiti as the world's first free black republic in 1804. The social and economic ramifications of this revolution were profound. The French Revolution, meanwhile, not only overthrew the monarchy, but also sought to reshape the whole of French society, from class relations to religion to economic structures. The attempt to replace the Catholic religion with the Cult of Reason, the redistribution of land and the establishment of the Napoleonic Code are all examples of the depth and scope of the changes introduced. These variations underline the importance of understanding each revolution in its unique context. While certain elements may be common to many revolutions, their presence, intensity and consequences will differ considerably according to the specificities of each situation.


革命因其产生的社会、经济、政治和历史背景而各不相同。有些革命会从根本上改变一个国家的社会和经济面貌,而有些革命则更侧重于政治变革,基本结构基本保持不变。美国革命就是一个很好的例子。它导致了与英国的重大决裂,并建立了新的共和政体。然而,战后主要依赖南方奴隶制的殖民地农业经济在很大程度上保持不变。基于种族和阶级的社会结构也依然存在,导致后来的冲突和改革。相比之下,圣多明各的革命远不止推翻统治精英那么简单。它导致殖民地废除奴隶制,白人地主被清算,海地于 1804 年成为世界上第一个自由黑人共和国。这场革命产生了深远的社会和经济影响。与此同时,法国大革命不仅推翻了君主制,还试图重塑整个法国社会,从阶级关系到宗教再到经济结构。以理性崇拜取代天主教的尝试、土地的重新分配以及《拿破仑法典》的制定,都体现了变革的深度和广度。这些变化凸显了在其独特背景下理解每场革命的重要性。虽然某些因素可能是许多革命所共有的,但它们的存在、强度和后果会因具体情况的不同而大相径庭。
The assertion that the leaders of the Thirteen Colonies were largely drawn from the wealthy classes is correct. Figures such as Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and John Adams came from privileged backgrounds. These men not only had economic interests to protect, but also a vision of liberty and self-government based on their studies of the Enlightenment philosophers and their own experiences as British subjects. It is also true that the American Revolution was not, in essence, a mass popular movement comparable to other revolutions, such as the French or Russian Revolutions. While many colonists were unhappy with British actions, not everyone necessarily supported the idea of revolution. There was a significant division among the colonists, with a large proportion remaining loyal to the British Crown. After the revolution, as mentioned, many socio-economic structures remained in place. However, it is important to note that some things changed. The monarchy was rejected in favour of a republic. The principles set out in the Declaration of Independence, and later in the Constitution, laid the foundations for a new type of government based on the ideals of liberty, equality and democracy. However, post-revolutionary America was far from egalitarian. Slavery, in particular, became an indelible stain on the fabric of the fledgling nation. Although parts of the North began to abolish slavery in the years following the Revolution, it took deeper root in the South. The question of slavery became a central issue, ultimately contributing to the American Civil War. The American Revolution was a period of contradictions. It was fought under banners of freedom and equality, but allowed gross inequalities, such as slavery, to persist. These tensions would continue to shape the trajectory of the nation for decades after the end of the war.


十三殖民地的领导人大多来自富裕阶层,这种说法是正确的。托马斯-杰斐逊、乔治-华盛顿和约翰-亚当斯等人出身优越。这些人不仅有经济利益需要保护,而且基于他们对启蒙哲学家的研究和作为英国臣民的亲身经历,对自由和自治抱有憧憬。从本质上讲,美国革命也确实不是一场可与法国或俄国革命等其他革命相提并论的群众运动。虽然许多殖民者对英国的行为不满,但并不一定每个人都支持革命的想法。殖民者之间存在很大分歧,很大一部分人仍然忠于英国王室。如前所述,革命之后,许多社会经济结构依然存在。然而,重要的是要注意到有些事情发生了变化。君主制被摒弃,取而代之的是共和制。独立宣言》以及后来的《宪法》中规定的原则为建立一个基于自由、平等和民主理想的新型政府奠定了基础。然而,革命后的美国远非平等主义。尤其是奴隶制,成为这个新生国家结构上不可磨灭的污点。尽管北方部分地区在革命后的几年里开始废除奴隶制,但奴隶制在南方扎根更深。奴隶制问题成为一个核心问题,最终引发了美国内战。美国革命是一个充满矛盾的时期。它打着自由和平等的旗号,却允许奴隶制等严重的不平等现象持续存在。战争结束后的几十年里,这些矛盾将继续影响美国的发展轨迹。
The Haitian Revolution is without doubt one of the most singular and radical moments in revolutionary history. Unlike the American Revolution, which, despite its ideals of freedom, maintained structures of inequality such as slavery, the Haitian Revolution profoundly overturned the existing system. Haiti, then known as Saint-Domingue, was France's richest colony and the world's most productive in terms of sugar, coffee and other agricultural products, all produced by slave labour. The slave population, which made up the vast majority of the island's population, suffered extremely brutal living and working conditions. When the slaves rose up in 1791, it was not only to put an end to colonial domination, but also to claim their humanity in the face of a system that treated them as mere property. Led by figures such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christophe, the rebels fought against French, British and Spanish forces that were either trying to reduce them or take advantage of the chaotic situation. In 1804, after years of bitter struggle, the Haitian revolutionary forces proclaimed independence, making Haiti the first free black post-colonial nation and the first nation in the world to abolish slavery as a fundamental part of its national identity. Compared to the American Revolution, the Haitian Revolution was far more radical in its social and economic implications. It not only changed who was in power, it transformed the very nature of that power and how it was to be exercised. The Haitian revolution was not only a victory against colonialism, but also a resounding victory against white supremacy and the slave system. It sent shockwaves through the Americas and set a powerful precedent for future anti-colonial and anti-slavery struggles.


海地革命无疑是革命史上最独特、最激进的时刻之一。尽管美国革命的理想是自由,但它保留了奴隶制等不平等结构,而海地革命则不同,它深刻地颠覆了现有制度。海地当时被称为圣多明各,是法国最富有的殖民地,也是世界上蔗糖、咖啡和其他农产品产量最高的国家,而所有这些产品都是由奴隶劳动生产的。奴隶人口占岛上人口的绝大多数,他们的生活和工作条件极其恶劣。1791 年,奴隶们奋起反抗,不仅是为了结束殖民统治,也是为了在被视为财产的制度面前伸张人性。在图桑-卢维杜尔、让-雅克-德萨林和亨利-克里斯托夫等人的领导下,起义军与法国、英国和西班牙军队展开了斗争,这些军队要么试图削弱他们的力量,要么试图利用混乱的局势。1804 年,经过多年艰苦卓绝的斗争,海地革命军宣布独立,使海地成为后殖民时代第一个自由的黑人国家,也是世界上第一个废除奴隶制作为其民族特征基本组成部分的国家。与美国革命相比,海地革命的社会和经济影响要激进得多。它不仅改变了掌权者,还改变了权力的性质和行使方式。海地革命不仅是反对殖民主义的胜利,也是反对白人至上主义和奴隶制度的巨大胜利。它在美洲引起了震动,为未来的反殖民主义和反奴隶制斗争开创了强大的先例。
The American Revolution, which took place from 1775 to 1783, was largely a political revolution. It was triggered by disagreements between the colonists of the Thirteen Colonies and the British metropolis over representation and taxation, among other grievances. When the United States gained its independence in 1783, it established a Federal Republic based on the principles of liberty, equality and democracy, at least for part of the population. However, despite the adoption of the Declaration of Independence and its assertion that "all men are created equal", post-revolutionary society was far from egalitarian. One of the greatest paradoxes of the American Revolution is that, although it was inspired by ideas of freedom and equality, it did not challenge the institution of slavery, which remained deeply entrenched, particularly in the Southern states. Slaves represented a significant part of the workforce and the economy, and their liberation would have had profound economic implications. This failure to address the issue of slavery proved costly, ultimately leading to the American Civil War in 1861. By contrast, the Haitian revolution, which began in 1791, was both a political and a social revolution. Led mainly by slaves who had risen up against their masters, it led to the creation of the world's first free black republic in 1804. This revolution was not only a rejection of colonialism, but also a radical challenge to the slave system and racial hierarchy. While the American Revolution established a new political framework and laid the foundations of a nation, it did not make any major changes to pre-existing socio-economic structures. The Haitian Revolution, on the other hand, overturned the social and economic order, making the abolition of slavery and the demand for equality not just ideals but tangible realities for the new nation.[[File:Great Seal of the United States (obverse).png|thumb|250px|Great Seal of the United States. It shows the 13 States and the 13 stripes that represent the 13 States that make up the United States. The eagle represents war, holding in its paws the olive branches of peace and the arrows of war. The Latin inscription "e pluribis unum" means "united in one".]]


美国革命发生于 1775 年至 1783 年,主要是一场政治革命。它是由十三殖民地的殖民者与英国大都会之间在代表权和税收等问题上的分歧引发的。美国在 1783 年获得独立后,建立了一个以自由、平等和民主原则为基础的联邦共和国,至少对部分人口而言是如此。然而,尽管通过了《独立宣言》并宣称 "人人生而平等",革命后的社会却远非平等主义。美国革命最大的悖论之一是,虽然它受到自由和平等思想的启发,但它并没有挑战奴隶制,奴隶制仍然根深蒂固,尤其是在南方各州。奴隶是劳动力和经济的重要组成部分,解放奴隶会产生深远的经济影响。事实证明,未能解决奴隶制问题代价高昂,最终导致了 1861 年的美国内战。相比之下,始于 1791 年的海地革命既是一场政治革命,也是一场社会革命。这场革命主要由起义反抗奴隶主的奴隶们领导,最终于 1804 年建立了世界上第一个自由黑人共和国。这场革命不仅是对殖民主义的否定,也是对奴隶制度和种族等级制度的彻底挑战。虽然美国革命建立了新的政治框架,奠定了国家的基础,但它并没有对原有的社会经济结构做出任何重大改变。另一方面,海地革命颠覆了社会和经济秩序,使废除奴隶制和要求平等不仅成为理想,而且成为新国家的具体现实。[[File:Great Seal of the United States (obverse).png|thumb|250px|美国国徽。印章上的 13 个州和 13 条条纹代表组成美国的 13 个州。鹰代表战争,鹰爪上握着和平的橄榄枝和战争的箭。拉丁文铭文 "e pluribis unum "意为 "合而为一"。]]
The independence of the United States marked an innovative era not only for the country itself, but also for the entire world. By becoming the first country in the Americas to gain independence, the United States set a bold course for future nations. These initial thirteen colonies were pioneers, defying the mighty Great Britain, and through their success they became a source of inspiration for independence movements in other parts of the Americas. The political structure they adopted was also revolutionary for its time. Rooted in the ideals of republicanism, the United States emphasised civic virtue, representation and the pursuit of the common good. The federalist system, meanwhile, was carefully designed to balance power, ensuring that neither the national government nor individual states became too dominant. This approach has shaped the unique dynamics of American government, where centrality and locality co-exist in harmony. But one of the most significant rejections of European traditions was the abandonment of hereditary nobility. In breaking with European monarchies and aristocracies, the United States embraced a philosophy in which power was determined not by birthright, but by merit and the consent of the citizenry. The Declaration of Independence became the eloquent statement of this belief, proclaiming that "all men are created equal" and insisting that governments exist by the will of the people. Overall, America's innovations laid the foundations for a nation that would constantly seek to redefine freedom, democracy and equality in the centuries to come.


美国的独立不仅标志着美国本身,也标志着整个世界进入了一个创新的时代。通过成为美洲第一个获得独立的国家,美国为未来的国家开辟了一条大胆的道路。最初的十三个殖民地是反抗强大的英国的先锋,他们的成功为美洲其他地区的独立运动提供了灵感。他们采用的政治结构在当时也是革命性的。美国植根于共和主义的理想,强调公民美德、代表权和对共同利益的追求。与此同时,美国精心设计了联邦制,以平衡权力,确保国家政府和各州都不会过于强势。这种做法形成了美国政府的独特活力,使中心地位和地方地位和谐共存。但对欧洲传统最重要的摒弃之一是放弃贵族世袭。在与欧洲君主制和贵族制决裂的过程中,美国接受了这样一种理念,即权力不是由出身决定,而是由功绩和公民的同意决定。独立宣言》是这一信念的雄辩宣言,它宣称 "人人生而平等",并坚持政府的存在要以人民的意愿为基础。总之,美国的创新为这个国家奠定了基础,在未来的几个世纪里,这个国家将不断寻求重新定义自由、民主和平等。
After gaining independence, the United States faced the challenge of creating a stable and effective government. The answer came in the form of the Constitution of 1787, a revolutionary document in many ways. Not only was it the first written Constitution in the world, but its persistence means that today it remains the oldest Constitution still in force. It was the result of intense deliberation and compromise between delegates from different colonies, meeting in Philadelphia at the Constitutional Convention. What they produced was a charter that carefully balanced power between the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, embodying the principle of the separation of powers. This separation was designed to avoid excessive concentration of power and to protect the rights of citizens by creating checks and balances. The Constitution goes beyond the simple structure of government. It also sets out the fundamental freedoms that must be protected. With the first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, individual rights such as freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial and protection against unreasonable search and seizure are guaranteed. The adaptability of the Constitution, thanks to its amendment mechanism, has enabled the United States to navigate through changing times and unprecedented challenges, while preserving its fundamental principles. This resilience makes the US Constitution a model and inspiration for other nations seeking to codify their own governmental principles and values.


获得独立后,美国面临着建立一个稳定而有效的政府的挑战。1787年的《宪法》在许多方面都是一份革命性的文件,它为我们提供了答案。它不仅是世界上第一部成文宪法,而且其持久性意味着它今天仍然是仍然有效的最古老的宪法。它是来自不同殖民地的代表在费城制宪会议上激烈讨论和妥协的结果。他们所制定的宪章谨慎地平衡了政府行政、立法和司法部门之间的权力,体现了三权分立的原则。这种分权旨在避免权力过度集中,并通过建立制衡机制来保护公民权利。宪法不仅仅是简单的政府结构。它还规定了必须受到保护的基本自由。前十条修正案(即《权利法案》)保障了言论自由、公平审判权以及免受不合理搜查和扣押等个人权利。宪法的适应性得益于其修订机制,这使得美国能够在不断变化的时代和前所未有的挑战中游刃有余,同时又能维护其基本原则。这种适应性使美国宪法成为其他国家寻求编纂本国政府原则和价值观的典范和灵感来源。
The United States introduced major innovations in governance after independence. By opting for a republican system based on the principle of consent of the governed, by establishing a balance of power through a federalist system, and by adopting the world's first written Constitution, which is still in force, it created a model of democracy and federalism that has influenced many other nations in their quest for autonomy and democratic governance.


美国独立后在治理方面进行了重大创新。美国选择了以被统治者同意原则为基础的共和制,通过联邦制建立了权力制衡,并通过了世界上第一部成文宪法,这部宪法至今仍然有效,美国创造了民主和联邦制的典范,影响了许多其他国家对自治和民主治理的追求。
Although the United States pioneered republicanism and introduced several democratic innovations, its initial democracy was limited in several ways when compared to the modern conception of democracy. The US Constitution, as originally drafted in 1787, reflects the socio-political and economic realities of the time. Although strongly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, this Constitution also bears the hallmarks of the compromises needed to unite a young, fragmented nation. Firstly, the right to vote was initially restricted to white male property owners. This restriction was based on the Founding Fathers' belief that only those with tangible economic interests should have the power to decide on the affairs of state. They feared the "tyrant of the majority" and considered that direct democracy could prove unstable. Secondly, the three-fifths compromise, which counted each slave as three-fifths of a person for representation in Congress, was the result of tense negotiations. The Southern slave states wanted to increase their legislative power by counting the slave population, while the Northern states were more reluctant. This compromise, although morally troubling to us today, was a pragmatic way of maintaining a delicate balance between the States. Finally, the Electoral College was established as a balancing mechanism to protect the interests of the smaller states against the larger ones. The Founding Fathers, concerned about the possibility of knee-jerk decisions by the populace, designed this system so that the President would be chosen by people who were considered educated and well-informed. Over the years, the Constitution has been amended to better reflect socio-political changes, such as the abolition of slavery and the granting of the vote to women. Nevertheless, its initial version is a fascinating testament to the compromises and ideals of the late eighteenth century.


尽管美国开创了共和制并引入了多项民主创新,但与现代民主概念相比,其最初的民主在多个方面受到限制。最初于 1787 年起草的美国宪法反映了当时的社会政治和经济现实。虽然深受启蒙思想的影响,但这部宪法也体现了为团结一个年轻、四分五裂的国家所需的妥协特征。首先,选举权最初仅限于白人男性财产所有者。这一限制是基于国父们的信念,即只有那些拥有切实经济利益的人才有权决定国家事务。他们惧怕 "多数人的暴君",认为直接民主可能证明是不稳定的。其次,五分之三的妥协是紧张谈判的结果,它将每个奴隶算作五分之三的国会代表。南方奴隶制各州希望通过计算奴隶人口来增加其立法权,而北方各州则更不情愿。这种妥协虽然在今天看来在道义上给我们造成了困扰,但却是保持各州之间微妙平衡的一种务实的方式。最后,设立选举团是为了建立一种平衡机制,保护小州的利益不受大州的影响。开国元勋们担心民众可能会做出冲动的决定,因此设计了这一制度,以便由受过教育、消息灵通的人选出总统。多年来,宪法不断修订,以更好地反映社会政治的变化,如废除奴隶制和赋予妇女投票权。尽管如此,其最初版本仍是十八世纪末妥协和理想的精彩见证。
The concept of democracy at the time of the founding of the United States was strongly influenced by the historical experiences and intellectual concerns of the time. While the word "democracy" today evokes the idea of universal participation and equal rights, this was not the case at the end of the 18th century. When the American Founding Fathers considered democracy, they often looked at it through the prism of ancient Greece, where Athenian democracy had been associated with instability, impulsiveness and demagoguery. Stories of hysterical crowds making hasty decisions or being easily manipulated by skilful orators were lessons learned and feared. Moreover, the time of the American Revolution was a period of intense intellectual questioning. The Enlightenment had sparked deep reflection on government, rights and human nature. Many of the Founding Fathers were influenced by these ideas, but were also aware of the potential dangers of overly direct government. They feared that the "tyranny of the majority" would threaten the rights of minorities, and that the passions of the moment would prevail over considered reasoning. So while they sought to create a system that guaranteed certain fundamental rights and public participation, they were also keen to introduce safeguards. They preferred a republican system, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf, to direct democracy. The vision of the Founding Fathers was to create a balance: a government that could function effectively while protecting individual rights and avoiding the pitfalls they associated with direct democracy. This vision has evolved over time, as the notion of democracy has broadened and deepened to include more citizens in the decision-making process.


美国建国时的民主概念深受当时历史经验和思想关切的影响。今天,"民主 "一词让人联想到普遍参与和平等权利,但在 18 世纪末,情况并非如此。美国的开国元勋们在考虑民主问题时,往往会从古希腊的角度来看待它,古希腊的雅典民主与不稳定、冲动和蛊惑人心联系在一起。歇斯底里的人群做出草率的决定,或者被高超的演说家轻易操纵,这些都是他们汲取的教训,也是他们所惧怕的。此外,美国革命时期也是知识分子激烈质疑的时期。启蒙运动引发了对政府、权利和人性的深刻反思。许多开国元勋受到这些思想的影响,但也意识到过于直接的政府可能带来的危险。他们担心 "多数人的暴政 "会威胁到少数人的权利,也担心一时的激情会战胜深思熟虑的推理。因此,他们在寻求建立一种能够保障某些基本权利和公众参与的制度的同时,也热衷于引入保障措施。与直接民主相比,他们更倾向于共和制,即公民选举代表来代表他们做出决定。开国元勋们的愿景是创造一种平衡:一个既能有效运作,又能保护个人权利并避免与直接民主相联系的陷阱的政府。随着时间的推移,这种愿景也在不断演变,民主的概念也在不断扩大和深化,让更多的公民参与到决策过程中来。
Since independence, the United States has undergone a profound transformation in its system of democracy and representation. The Constitution itself, although rooted in fundamental principles, was designed to be a living document, capable of adapting and evolving over time. Thus, over the years, several amendments were adopted to reflect the country's social and political developments. The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, marked a milestone by guaranteeing that the right to vote could not be "denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, colour, or previous condition of servitude". In other words, it prohibited racial discrimination in the right to vote, although in practice many Southern states found ways to circumvent this provision until the civil rights movement of the twentieth century. The 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, represented another major step forward. After decades of struggle and advocacy by suffragettes, this amendment guaranteed women the right to vote, ending a long period of exclusion of women from the electoral process. Finally, in 1971, the 26th Amendment was adopted in response to the concerns of young Americans, particularly during the Vietnam War. Many wondered why young men could be drafted to fight for their country at 18, but had to wait until 21 to vote. The amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. These and other amendments show how American democracy has evolved, adapting to become more inclusive and more reflective of the nation's changing values. They also highlight the importance of civic advocacy and engagement in bringing about positive change in the system.


自独立以来,美国的民主和代表制度经历了深刻的变革。宪法本身虽然植根于基本原则,但其设计初衷是使其成为一份活的文件,能够随着时间的推移不断调整和演变。因此,多年来通过了多项修正案,以反映国家的社会和政治发展。1870 年批准的第 15 项修正案是一个里程碑,它保证 "美国或任何州不得因种族、肤色或以前的奴役状况而剥夺或减损 "选举权。换句话说,它禁止在选举权方面的种族歧视,尽管在实践中,许多南方州想方设法规避这一规定,直到 20 世纪的民权运动。1920 年批准的第 19 项修正案代表着又向前迈进了一大步。经过女权运动者数十年的斗争和宣传,该修正案保障了妇女的选举权,结束了妇女长期被排斥在选举进程之外的状况。最后,1971 年,第 26 项修正案获得通过,以回应美国年轻人的关切,尤其是在越南战争期间。许多人不明白,为什么年轻人 18 岁就可以应征入伍为国效力,却要等到 21 岁才能投票。该修正案将投票年龄从 21 岁降至 18 岁。这些修正案和其他修正案显示了美国民主是如何演变的,如何适应变得更具包容性和更能反映国家不断变化的价值观。它们还凸显了公民倡导和参与对实现制度积极变革的重要性。
The term "America" has its origins in the name of cartographer and explorer Amerigo Vespucci, who recognised that the lands discovered by Christopher Columbus were a continent distinct from Asia. Initially, the name was used to describe the newly discovered continents of the New World, namely North America and South America. Over time, however, with the rise in power and influence of the United States, the term 'America' became synonymous, in many contexts, with the United States itself. The perception that the United States appropriates the term "America" has been a source of contention. Citizens of other countries on the continent can feel marginalised when they hear the term used exclusively to refer to the United States. It is a question of recognition and respect for the distinct cultures, histories and nations that make up the Americas. In an international context, it is common to use "American" to refer to someone from the United States. However, in Latin America, for example, the term "norteamericano" (North American) or "estadounidense" (from the United States) is often used to avoid this confusion. In addition, the term "americano" in many Latin American countries refers to someone from any part of the Americas, not just the United States. It is therefore important to recognise the context and audience when using this term. Linguistic and cultural nuances can affect how information is received and interpreted. For many, the word 'America' conjures up images of a vast continent with a rich diversity of cultures, histories and peoples.
 
美洲 "一词起源于制图师和探险家亚美利哥-韦斯普奇(Amerigo Vespucci)的名字,他认为克里斯托弗-哥伦布(Christopher Columbus)发现的土地是一个有别于亚洲的大陆。最初,这个名字被用来描述新大陆中新发现的大陆,即北美洲和南美洲。然而,随着时间的推移,随着美国权力和影响力的崛起,"美洲 "一词在许多情况下成为美国本身的同义词。美国独占 "美洲 "一词的观点一直是争议的根源。当非洲大陆其他国家的公民听到 "美国 "一词专指美国时,他们会感到自己被边缘化了。这是一个承认和尊重构成美洲的独特文化、历史和民族的问题。在国际背景下,通常用 "美国人 "来指代来自美国的人。但是,在拉丁美洲,为了避免混淆,通常使用 "norteamericano"(北美人)或 "estadounidense"(美国人)。此外,在许多拉丁美洲国家,"americano "一词指来自美洲任何地方的人,而不仅仅是美国人。因此,在使用这一术语时,必须认清语境和受众。语言和文化上的细微差别会影响信息的接收和解释。对许多人来说,"美洲 "一词会让人联想到一个有着丰富多彩的文化、历史和民族的广袤大陆。


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